World of Education/World of Education.iso/world_a/3tfirst.zip/QFIRST.DEF

Text File | 1980-01-01 | 203KB | 3,524 lines

::#::#1A~u Does this PROFESSOR 3T tutorial have a manual? ~n
::#~g~h





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~p~g~h


                            ╔══════════════╗
                            ║ INTRODUCTION ║
                            ╚══════════════╝~n~g


               ~gIn   the   introductory  portion  of   this
               tutorial,   we   begin  with  some   useful
               questions  to   help  you  to  become  more
               familiar   with   your  ~r  PROFESSOR   3T  ~n~g
               tutorial.   You   are  encouraged   to TAKE
               NOTES as  you study  so you may continually
               re-read  and retain  each concept and  idea
               that is taught in this  tutorial.

~p~g~h


                      ╔══════════════════════════╗
                      ║ THE PROFESSOR 3T CONCEPT ║
                      ╚══════════════════════════╝~n


               ~gThe ~h PROFESSOR 3T tutorial ~n~g concept  (which
               has   been continuously developed  in   our
               computer institute ~r since  1982) ~n~g  has been
               restructured,  rewritten and   consistently
               modified  thanks to the treasured  feedback
               from  people  like   yourself,   educators,
               students,    and   distinguished   computer
               experts.    This   is   a   major    reason
               why   people  can   more    quickly   learn
               subjects  taught  with  the ~h PROFESSOR 3T ~n
~p






               ~gtutorials   than   by   reading  books   or
               attending conventional educational seminars
               and classes.    This is not to say that the
               conventional   methods   of  teaching   are
               outdated,  but   our surveys   and  studies
               have  shown that ~h~gPROFESSOR   3T~n~g  tutorials
               are an excellent  way to learn a particular
               topic.



::@::*1~yNo.~n
::\~gYou    are  correct.  What you can  see and  read on paper  you   can
also   see   and  read on a computer monitor as easily, or  better!    By
using   a   computer,   important  concepts can  be  highlighted.    This
allows  a   much  better  way   to    see    everything,   keeping  ideas
presented to the  student  in  perspective.    ~hAlthough  paper  is  one
type  of   storage,  a computer has a more   advanced   storage    system
than  paper  making  it  a  viable,   more  efficient     solution   than
piles of paper storage.~n~g This is why we encourage all software-producing
colleagues to use the exciting advantages  of computers to produce efficient,
friendly and   practical  application programs in the manner used by
PROFESSOR 3T.  This also reduces the need for cumbersome paper-based
user manuals.


::@2~yYes.~n

::\~gSorry,   no.   ~hThe  PROFESSOR 3T  philosophy  of  teaching  through
tutorials  is   to  cut down the need for storing ideas and  subjects  on
paper.~n~g   In  this way, students are more likely to learn,  using  the
lessons  repeatedly until  they attain a better score.  What is on  paper
can  be read just  as easily on the computer as well and, in some  cases,
even better!

::#B~u When should you use the GLOSSARY OF TERMS? ~n
::@1~yWhenever a term presented in the tutorial is not familiar to me.~n
::\~gYou  are not wrong, but this is not the best answer.  ~hThe  GLOSSARY
OF TERMS  is furnished  for your  convenience with explanations in
easy-to-understand terminology.~n~g  It is advisable to review the GLOSSARY OF
TERMS  to  comprehend subject terms, jargon, acronyms and   abbreviations
before you start each tutorial.  This is a more effective way of learning.
As you  advance through each lesson ~hyou are also  encouraged   to
take   notes~n~g  on all terms that you may not be acquainted  with   and
study  them  again after each lesson.

::@::*2~yBefore  starting a lesson or whenever one of the terms presented
in the tutorial is not familiar to me.~n

::\~gYou   are indeed wise to understand this! The text of  each  tutorial
has many  terms, jargon, acronyms and abbreviations that you may or   may
not  recognize.   ~r The  GLOSSARY OF TERMS ~n ~g~his supplied to    help
you become familiar  with terminology in  easy-to-understand, everyday
language.~n~g Please  read the definitions in the GLOSSARY OF TERMS
before    you  start each   tutorial.   This is a very efficient  way  to
learn.    Then,   while proceeding  through the lesson, we recommend  you
make  notes  on all  unfamiliar  terms or phrases and  check  them  again
(using the Glossary)  after you have completed the lesson.

::#C~u What is the function of the STATUS REPORT? ~n
::@1~yIt lists the scores for each test I have taken.~n
::\~gSorry, ~r the STATUS  REPORT ~n~g~h does more~n~g than just   exhibit
your   scores.  Whenever you commence a session, we advise you to  glance
over  the  STATUS REPORT   first.   It will reveal, on your monitor,  how
many   lessons   you have  become  proficient  in  and which  lesson  you
should begin next. Your  scores  will  also display how you have done  in
the  past.  This  is   a measure in which you can decide if you  need  to
repeat  a lesson to improve your performance, or continue on to the  next
assignment.


::@::*2~yIt has advantages other than listing your score.~n

::\~g~r Excellent! The STATUS REPORT ~n~g does reveal your scores, but  it
is   more than  that.   Whenever you start an assignment, ~hplease  first
glance   over  your STATUS  REPORT~n~g.  In doing so, you will  not  only
identify  what  your score   is   for  each lesson but  also   which
assignments   you  need  to better  yourself  in, and what lesson you  need
to   begin next. This permits you to determine if you  need   improvement
on your summarized performance or whether you should advance to the  next
lesson.

::#D~u How do you conclude a session with PROFESSOR 3T? ~n
::@1~yBy removing the PROFESSOR 3T diskette from the disk drive
and switching off the power to the computer.~n
::\^^::~gNo,   you must never do this while running any program!   It   is
crucial for you to:
~r 1.~n~g Bring up the PROFESSOR 3T MAIN MENU on your monitor first;
~r 2.~n~g~h then press "Q"~n~g (the QUIT option); then
~r 3.~n~g WAIT until you see the DOS prompt    "A:>"  (or C:> or D:> if
your  computer  has  hard drives)  before extracting   the  PROFESSOR  3T
diskette from  the disk drive.
This   method    is   essential  in  order  to have your  session  scores
satisfactorily   registered.   ~hOtherwise,  you will  lose   significant
data,  and  may  have to repeat a lesson on which you may have gotten  an
exemplary score.~n~g


::@::*2~yBy going to the MAIN MENU and pressing "Q" for quit, then removing
the PROFESSOR 3T diskette from the disk drive when the
"A:>" (or C:> or D:>) prompt is shown on the monitor.~n

::\^^::~g~hCorrect!~n~g  I cannot stress how vital this procedure is!  Let
me summarize the practice of quitting PROFESSOR 3T:
~r 1.~n~g Bring up the PROFESSOR 3T MAIN MENU on your monitor first;
~r 2.~n~g then press "Q" (the QUIT option);
~r 3.~n~g WAIT until    you    see the DOS prompt "A:>" (or C:>  or  D:>
if your  computer has  hard  drives)  on your monitor  before
removing  the  ~hPROFESSOR 3T~n~g  diskette  from the disk drive.
This routine  is  necessary   in order   to  have your session scores and
other   essential   information recorded    in   the ~hSTATUS REPORT.~n~g
If  you turn off the   computer before  this   is accomplished,  you  may
lose  important data and have  to repeat  a lesson in which you may  have
had a good score.~n~g


::#E~u When multiple choice questions are given, should the student also
 try the wrong answers? ~n
::@1~yNo.~n
::\~gAlthough   the  established system of teaching has  been   to
discourage choosing incorrect answers, we  highly recommend it!   The
~hPROFESSOR   3T~n~g tutorials  are designed in such a way  that  ~hwrong
answers  may  incorporate additional  details and facts not found in  the
correct  answer.~n~g In this way,   you learn from your mistakes.   Don't
fret over lowered  scores  if you  choose wrong answers.  You always will
have  the option to retake the quiz and enhance  your scores.   In
addition, the responses we give to wrong answers actually help you learn
even more!

::@::*2~yYes.~N

::\~g~hPROFESSOR   3T~n~g   believes in the philosophy that  students  who
make   mistakes,  and learn why the mistakes were made, learn more  about
the   subject.   This is advisable in many cases because ~hthe  incorrect
answer  may include  additional information useful to the student that is
not  included   in  the correct response.~n~g  In this way,  the  learner
will    discover more  and  become increasingly proficient in the   topic
being   learned. Don't worry  about the lower scores yielded by selecting
a wrong  answer. The   option of taking each test again is there for  you
to  take   advantage  of,  and  attain  a better score, in order to  earn
the ~hCERTIFICATE  OF ACHIEVEMENT.~n~g

::#F~u Should you start with the next lesson now? ~n
::@1~yYes.~n
::\~gOur    experience  (and the experience of ~hPROFESSOR 3T~n~g   users)
has  been  that it is more wise to ~hexplore and  understand,  as far  as
possible,  ALL options available  to you in the MAIN MENU portion of  the
tutorial.~n~g  The   lessons  are but one part of the  complete  package.
The  other  parts  and options of the  ~hMAIN MENU~n~g are: the  ~hSTATUS
REPORT,~n~g  the ~hGLOSSARY OF  TERMS,~n~g  the  ~hCLASS  REPORT~n~g  and
the ~hCERTIFICATE OF ACHIEVEMENT.~n~g

::@::*2~yNo.~n

::\~gYou  are correct once more! It has been the experience of ~hPROFESSOR
3T~n~g students that it ~his better for you to examine and comprehend ALL
the options available  to you from the MAIN MENU before proceeding to the
next lesson.~n~g    In addition to the assignments themselves, there  are
a  number  of  alternatives  accessible  to you,  the  student.   ~hThese
options   are:  the STATUS REPORT, the GLOSSARY OF TERMS, the  CLASS
REPORT, and the  CERTIFICATE OF ACHIEVEMENT.~n~g

::#G~u Are Professor 3T tutorials available for many different types of
 computers? ~n
::@1~yYes.~n
::\~gThis is not the best answer.

::@2~yNo.~n
::\~gTry again for a better answer.

::@::*3~yNone of the above.~n

::\~g~hProfessor 3T~n~g tutorials are available for IBM and IBM-compatible
personal  computers.  The ~hProfessor 3T tutorials~n~g are  available  in
both  standard 5.25 inch drives and the 3.5 inch drives.   Our  tutorials
can be  easily downloaded onto your hard disk.  We will soon make
available the  ~hProfessor 3T~n~g line for ~r Apple Computers. ~n

::#H~u How can I install my Professor 3T tutorial on my computer's hard
 disk drive? ~n
::@1~yYou can only run your tutorial from the floppy disk drive.
::\~gYou  can run your Professor 3T tutorial from your floppy disk  drive(s)
or from your computer's hard disk drive.  It is advised that you  install
each of your tutorials on your hard disk drive.  We have provided such  a
program on each tutorial to make this an automatic procedure.  Try  again
for more information.

::@::*2~yBy using the installation batch file included in the tutorial.
::\~gYou are correct.  You can run your Professor 3T tutorials on your  hard
disk drive.  We have provided a BATCH file for each individual  tutorial.
These  BATCH  files create individual sub-directories for  each  of  your
Professor  3T  tutorials.  On this tutorial's disk, your  BATCH  file  is
~r HFIRST.BAT. ~N~g  All you have to do is:  Put your original Professor 3T  disk
in  drive A.  At the A:> prompt, type ~r HFIRST ~n~g and press enter  or  return.
This  command creates a sub-directory on your computer's hard disk  drive
(C:>)  and copies all the files from the tutorial in the floppy drive  to
this  sub-directory.  Your sub-directory name is ~r 3TFIRST. ~n~G  From  now  on,
you will access  it by simply typing ~r CD\3TFIRST ~n~g at  the  C:>  prompt  and
pressing  return.  You'll then be in that sub-directory and,  from  that,
you'll type ~r 3TFIRST ~n~g to start your tutorial.  Simple, huh?


::#::#2A~u What are our means of communication? ~n
::#~g~h

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~p~g~h


                       ╔══════════════════════════╗
                       ║ MISUNDERSTANDING SOURCES ║
                       ╚══════════════════════════╝~n

               ~gAlmost daily,   we  see   problems    arise
               because   of someone's inability to  convey
               to someone  else what they mean.   ~hWe  have
               to  avoid  these  causes   of     misunder-
               standing,  specifically   during   learning
               processes.~n~g   ~r Communication ~n~g  is the  basis
               for understanding,   coordination, coopera-
               tion and action.~p

               ~gThe  more important factors in the learning
               process   are   sufficient    communication
               and~n~g   ~r understanding ~n~g  between  information
               sources  and  the  learner.~n~g     The    most
               important  sources are:   teachers,  tutors
               and  educators.

               Paper     and   computer   memories     are
               used  for  information sources as     well.
               Books   and  computer tutorials  are   good
               examples of these ~r information sources. ~n~g We
               use   our   language    to     communicate.
               Our   language consists  of words.    Words
               are    ambiguous  and    people     project
               their   individual   meanings  into   other
               people's messages.~p~g





               Let us discuss these and other problems  of
               our everyday communication in the following
               test session with you.    Keep in  mind  we
               should     avoid     these    causes     of
               misunderstanding  in our learning  process.
               In   this  tutorial  we  use  the  TWO  WAY
               communication  Learning  Process  to  avoid
               misunderstanding   and  secure  a    better
               learning process.


::@::*1 ~ySome Codes.~n
::\~g~r You are correct ~n~g but we have to keep in mind that these man-made codes
are  mostly verbal and written words.  Humans communicate~n~g  with  written,
verbal  and other codes.  Mechanical devices communicate with  electrical
codes.  Some examples of such mechanical devices are ~hcomputers and control
systems.~n

::@2 ~yPhenomena and Things which surround us.~n
::\~gSorry,  I  wish we could use the real things instead of  words  as   the
means of our ~r communication. ~n~g  Nevertheless,  a demonstration  in  a
classroom is more  efficient in   the  learning  process when  compared
to either a lecture or the reading of a book on the subject. ~n

::@3 ~yVerbal and written words. ~n
::\~gYou are partially correct.  Unfortunately, human beings could not find
a better code than words for ~r everyday communication.~n~g  As a matter of fact,
we live in two different worlds;  the coded or symbolic world, and  the
non-coded  or  real world.  The words are  symbols which   represent,  or
stand for, non-verbal  realities.

::#B~u If a person knows clearly what he means and can accurately
 express it. ~n

::@1 ~yWill listeners  understand him?~n
::\~g~hWe would have a better world if you were  right!~n~g There  is  no assurance
that the listener will  get  the message or  that he will understand it.

::@::*2 ~yThere is no assurance that listeners will understand him.~n
::\~gIt has become better now.  Even  if both the speaker and the listener
unconsciously   assume  that they understand each other, often  this   is
not   true.  ~hThe explorations of general semanticists into the nature  of
meaning   have  revealed   how  some  characteristics  of  our   language
cause  behavior   which leads  to  misunderstandings  and   communication
problems.~n

::\~gPerfect, you must have had some experience.  Even if both   the  speaker
and the listener unconsciously ~r assume ~n~g that they understand each  other,
often this  is not  true.  The explorations of general  semanticists into
the   nature  of meaning have revealed how some  characteristics  of  our
language  cause behavior which leads to misunderstandings and
communication problems. ~n

::#C~u Are there meanings in words? ~n

::@1 ~yYes, there are. ~n
::\~gSorry, this is not true.  The very  expression  "the meaning of   words"
implies that there are meanings IN words.  However, ~hsemanticists~n~g have
discovered    that  this  is  an assumption and is a   major   cause   of
misunderstanding.    Language  is  arbitrary.  A word  is  an   arbitrary
symbol  which  has been assigned to stand for some nonverbal object.~n

::@::*2 ~yNo, there are not.~n
::\~gNow we are agreeing with each other. Since there is no fixed,
one-to-one, relationship  between  ~r words ~n~g and meanings, a word may
have many  uses.   It may mean many different things e.g. the  500   most
used  words   in  the  English language have at least  14,000   different
definitions.~n~g   The  fact that a number of meanings may be assigned to   a
given  word explains why messages are  subject to  misinterpretation  and
why  our  communication is open  to ~r misunderstanding. ~n

::\~g~r Excellent! ~n~g You are sharp today.  Since there is  no  fixed,
one-to-one, relationship between  ~r words ~n~g and meanings a word may have
many uses.  It  may  mean many different things  e.g.  the 500 most  used
words  in   the  English  language  have  at   least   14,000   different
definitions.~n~g   The fact that a number of meanings  may be assigned  to  a
given  word explains why  messages   are  subject   to  misinterpretation
and why our communication is open to ~r misunderstanding. ~n

::#D~u Do we project our own meaning into what others are saying? ~n

::@::*1 ~yYes, we do.~n
::\~gYou  got  the  right projection this time.  Projections  are
strongly influenced by each  person's own  experiences.~n~g  Consequently,
each  person   may   have  a  unique  personal  meaning  for any    given
word.   Individually,    we  are bound by the span of  our   intellectual
abilities   and  senses.  We are bound by the  current body  of  existing
knowledge, the confines of time  and space, ~r culture, ~n~g language  and
education.    Finally,   we  are limited by  our  own  interests.   These
determine the way we  see the  world and the facts we  select  from   the
total non-verbal  environment.

::\~gI  have  to admire  your  perfect  projection.  Projections are
strongly influenced by each person's own experiences.~n~g Consequently, each
person may have  a  unique personal meaning for any given word.
Individually, we are bound by the span of our intellectual  abilities
and senses.  We are also bound by the current body of existing knowledge,
the  confines of  time and space, ~r culture, ~n~g language  and  education.
Finally,  we  are  limited  by  our  own  interest  which  determines the
way  we see the world and the facts we select from the  total  non-verbal
environment.

::@2 ~yNo, we do not.~n
::\~gYou're   wrong this time. Since words  do  not contain  meanings, it  is
necessary  for  us to project meanings into them when we  use  them.   ~hWe
always    have   the   problem  of objectivity  when  we    unconsciously
assume  that  we know  what the  other  person  meant  because  we   know
what it means to us.~n

::#E~u Are there meanings in the words used in computer languages? ~n

::@::*1 ~yYes, there are. ~n

::\~gNow you've learned a little bit more. Contrary to  human   languages,
each    word  in computer languages  has a precise unique  and   meaning.~n~g
There is a fixed, ~r one-to-one,~n~g relationship between words and meanings.
A word  has  only  one  use, which is a specific action  in  the  computer
system.   Unlike  individual projections in  human  communication,
projections  in computing communications are fixed by computer designers and
programmers.~n

::\~gYou are really sharp today. Contrary to human languages,  each  word  in
computer languages  has a precise and unique meaning.~n~g  There is a  fixed,
one-to-one, relationship  between ~r words and meanings. ~n~g A word has only
one  use,  which  is a specific action in the  computer  system.   ~hUnlike
individual  projections in human communication, projections in  computing
communications   are  fixed  by computer  designers  and programmers.~n

::@2 ~yNo, there are not. ~n
::\~gSorry!  Thanks to computer scientists and  designers, computers do   not
allow misunderstanding and misprojections to creep into the  meanings  of
words.~n~g  Be thankful  all  human beings are not programmed like computers.

::#F ~uHow  can we overcome these problems of  misunderstanding,  especially
 in our learning processes? ~n

::@1~yBy reading more books, attending lectures and listening carefully
to knowledgeable people.~n
::\~gSorry.  When we read a book or listen to somebody, we are in a ONE   WAY
communication  system.~n~g  In this case, the listener or the learner  cannot
understand  the speaker's message(s).  This system is especially
inefficient during  learning processes.~n~g~h In schools, the learners
generally are in a ONE WAY  communication  system.  With quality computerized
tutorials, learners can learn in TWO WAY communication system. ~n

::@::*2~yBy asking questions, answering questions and through discussions. ~n
::\~g~hExcellent.~n~g  While asking questions, answering questions and during
discussions  we  are  in a TWO WAY communication  system.~n~g   An example is
TUTORING  in  schools.   Lectures are not as efficient  in  our  learning
procedures.  For total ~r tutoring ~n~g in our schools we must have as many
tutors  as  the number of students, which is impossible.   Therefore,  we
share  a  teacher's time with a number of students in  lecture  sessions.
With   computer tutorials, we can have as many tutorials as  the   number
of learners.~n~g Do you realize why radio and television have not helped  the
educational process?   Because  they  are  examples of ~h ONE-WAY ~n~g
communications systems (except for call-in shows).

::#G~u Don't we currently have learning processes based upon the TWO-WAY
 COMMUNICATION system IN OUR SCHOOLS? ~n

::@::*1 ~yYes, we do.~n
::\~gYou are correct.  We have TUTORING in our schools.  We all remember that
TUTORING is a very efficient learning process.~n~g  We have all learned a lot
during TUTORING sessions with our teachers.  The big problem here is that
we just cannot have as many TUTORS as there are students enrolled in  all
our schools!~n~g
This  is the reason we have to divide a teacher's time amongst many
students during ~hLECTURING ~n~g sessions. Teachers have many problems in
teaching subjects to quite a number of students.  Each student's individual
level of knowledge, aptitude and attitude must be accounted for in order for
optimum learning to occur.  This is why LECTURING sessions are not
educationally efficient.~n

::@2 ~yNo, we don't.~n
::\~gSorry.  We have TUTORING in our schools.  We all remember that  TUTORING
is  a very efficient learning process.~n~g  We have all learned a lot  during
~r TUTORING ~n~g sessions with our teachers.  ~hThe big problem here is  that
we just cannot have as many TUTORS as there are students enrolled in all our
schools!~n~g
This  is the reason we have to divide a teacher's time amongst many
students during LECTURING sessions.  Teachers have many problems in teaching
subjects to quite a number of students.  Each student's individual  level
of  knowledge, aptitude and attitude must be accounted for in  order  for
optimum learning to occur.~n~g This is why ~hLECTURING~n~g sessions are not
educationally efficient.

::#H~u We generally can produce more than we need in most sectors of our
 economy except the educational sector.  Why is this? ~n

::@1 ~yWe do not produce more than we need in the other sectors.~n
::\~gSorry.   We  should all agree that the industrial  and  data  processing
revolutions  facilitated the development of powerful  production  systems
for  our needs.  Such production follows the law of supply and demand  in
all  sectors EXCEPT the educational sector.~n~g  The general problem  in  all
working sectors is insufficient education.  With ~r BETTER EDUCATION, ~n~g we
will have a  ~r BETTER WORLD. ~n

::@2 ~yThere aren't enough TUTORS, resources and time.~n
::\~gYou are not wrong but this is not the best answer.   We  spend  large
amounts of human  and physical capital on education.  Even  if  we  had
enough TUTORS, they would have to meet  students in centralized locations
and during agreed-upon times.~n~g  ~r Centralized ~n~g locations or schools
are expensive.  Travelling to and from schools demands time and expenses from
the  learners.  The best educational environment should be free from  the
constraints  of  TIME and LOCATION.~n~g  Learners study more  efficiently  at
their own pace.  Learners should have enough ~r TUTORS ~n~g available to them,
when and where they are in the proper frame of mind to learn.~n

::@::*3 ~yWe don't use the correct tools.~n
::\~g~hExcellent.~n~g  You must be very sharp and convinced, by now, that
we should have the right TOOLS in our education.~n~g  Didn't we increase
production in other  sectors when we applied the right tools?  The right
tools in our education include high-quality COMPUTERIZED TUTORIALS.  We
designed  this lesson  to draw your attention to, and increase your confidence
in, our PROFESSOR  3T computerized tutorials.~n~g  For the last nine years,
we have been producing these fine educational tools for you, utilizing the right
concepts  and  ever-increasing  quality.  Your help in  this  process  is
welcome;  send us your comments and suggestions as to what you'd like  to
see improved in our tutorials.

::@4 ~yDue to centralized educational systems.~n
::\^^::~gYou are partially correct.  We listed the constraints in our
centralized educational systems as follows;~n~g
~r (a) ~n~g lack of human power,~r (b) ~n~g finances,~r (c) ~n~g an inadequate learning
environment,~r (d) ~n~ginefficient learning processes,~r (e) ~n~g not enough time
for thorough exam procedures,~r (f) ~n~g not enough time spent on real-life
experiences,~r (g) ~n~g problems in developing ~h curricula,~n~g ~r (h) ~n~g resistance to
change.
We have an extensive report, "Education In An Information Society,"~n~g
a chapter of which discusses the details of the above summary.  We will
send this report to interested institutions or individuals.

::#I~u Which is better for education - a human tutor or a computerized
 tutorial? ~n
::@::*1 ~yA human tutor.~n
::\^^::~gExcellent. Nothing can replace a human TUTOR.~n~g Computerized tutorials
are products of human tutors and other educators.  Educators should produce
and use computerized tutorials because they are powerful tools needed to
attain our educational objectives.  ~hThese objectives are severly limited
at this time because we don't have enough educational productivity.  We
teach as much as we can, but not as much as we need.~n~g Sadly, we  are
falling behind in the race to attain our  educational objectives because
we are merely trouble-shooting educational problems instead of executing
the actions of a real educational plan.~n~g Please try the  other
responses to this question and you'll discover more useful information.

::@2 ~yA computerized tutorial.~n
::\~gSorry.   This PROFESSOR 3T tutorial needs human tutors and educators  in
order for it to be produced.  ~r A computerized tutorial ~n~g cannot replace  a
HUMAN  TUTOR.  Such a tutorial is just a tool used by educators in  order
to deliver a better education.  We will always need supplementary
teaching by human tutors.  The only advantage computerized tutorials have
over human tutors is that these  computerized tutorials can be duplicated
and, barring unforeseen  technological developments, will outlive
their creators.~n

::@3 ~yWe need both.~n
::\~gYou are not wrong, but our question was "Which one is better?"  We agree
that  computerized tutorials are produced by human tutors and  educators.
~hThe  utilization  of  computerized tutorials is an  excellent  method  of
improving  the power of our education.~n~g  Once we have enough  high-quality
computerized  tutorials  for all subject topics, people will be  able  to
learn at their own pace~n~g and wherever a computer is available.
The quality  of  computerized tutorials will be constantly increasing
with  time, thus ~himproving~n~g all users' ~r educations. ~n~g Please feel
free to write us with your  comments and suggestions as how to improve the
quality of our  PROFESSOR 3T tutorials.

::@4 ~yNone of the above.~n
::\~gNo,  the  correct answer is one of the above.  We do  need  high-quality
computerized tutorials to drastically improve our educational
productivity.~n~g  Human tutors and educators plan, design, write, edit and revise
these  tutorials  to  more closely  mirror  our  educational  objectives.
Correspondingly, the ~r quality ~n~g of these computerized tutorials  can  only
increase with time.  The main advantages of computerized tutorials can be
summarized as follows:   They are  inexpensive,  quickly  duplicated  and
transferable,  easily and  inexpensively translated into other languages,
have an  unlimited life time,  and they allow students to  learn at their
own pace.~n



::#::#3A ~uWhat do we do when we write on paper? ~n
::#~g~h


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                                  ║

                              ██████
                              ██  ██ ╓───╖ ╓───╖
                         ▀▀   ██  ██ ║   ║ ╟───╜   ▀▀
                              ██████ ║   ║ ╙───┘

~p~g~h


                        ╔═══════════════════════╗
                        ║ COMPUTER SIMPLIFIED I ║
                        ╚═══════════════════════╝~n

               ~gComputing   is  not  new.    We  have  been
               computing    in  our  heads  since     time
               immemorial.   But electronic computers  are
               new.  We have been using many  other,  less
               sophisticated   computing  ~htools~n~g  for  cen-
               turies.    Examples of these   tools   are:
               paper, pencils  and the abacus. ~p




               ~gPaper is  for data storage.   Pencils  are
               data input tools.  Our eyes and  ears  are
               also  human   data  input  organs.     For
               computers,  we  also need data  input  de-
               vices, such as  a  keyboard.    Paper  and
               computer     screens  (monitors)   display
               data.  We can ~r process  data ~n~g   with   the
               abacus or  in  our  heads. Computers  also
               have  data processing  units, as  the  CPU
               (Central Processing  Unit). Now  let's  go
               to the test section  and  see what we know
               about computing.

::@1 ~yWe just start to write what we want. ~n
::\^^::~gWhat  about the times when you want to write and you cannot
make up your mind ?

Don't you use your ~hmemory~n~g when you write?

Don't you often ~hdecide to change~n~g what you have written?

You see,  you don't just start to write what you want!

You do much more.
::@::*2 ~yWe do much more. ~n
::\^^::~gOf course we do much more.  We can summarize the real actions
briefly as follows:
~r a) ~n~g First, we have a desire to write.  This desire is caused by a
     thought, an instruction or a command. We need commands for computer
     actions as well.
~r b) ~n~g Then we plan or program our writing. This plan or program
     includes subjects and their sequences.  Computers must also have
     general-purpose plans and very detailed programs for their actions.
~r c) ~n~g We have to get the subjects from  memory or from a book.
     Computers also need memories and storage media for data.
~r d) ~n~g Finally, we decide to use a pen or pencil to write on the paper.

Computers  also need input and display devices.

::#B ~uWhat do we do when we add two numbers together? ~n
::@1 ~yWe perform all the actions which we learned in the previous question. ~n
::\^^::~gIn the previous question, we learned that just for writing on paper,
we need:

~r a) ~n~g  A command to start the action.
~r b) ~n~g  A plan and/or a program for the action.
~r c) ~n~g  Data already stored in memory.
~r d) ~n~g  Input and display devices.

For addition or any other calculation, we also need relevant procedures.
::@::*2 ~yWe do much more. ~n
::\~gYou  are  right. For addition or any other calculation,  we  also  need
relevant procedures.  ~hWe process data in the brain.~n~g  If we have a simple
calculation  (e.g. 3 + 7), we know the answer right away (3 + 7  =   10).
This  kind of knowledge is stored in our heads and we use  it  frequently
and automatically.   In computer programming jargon, this kind of
knowledge is called a subroutine.  The brain's capacity for subroutines is
limited.   As an example, we can't easily remember the sum of 333 + 777.
A  computer's  capacity for subroutines is almost unlimited.  This  is  a
comforting thought, especially since we human beings program the
subroutines into computers.

::#C ~uDo we have a program when we do mathematical calculations? ~n
::@::*1 ~yYes, we do.  ~n
::\^^::~g~r You are correct. ~n~g The size of the program depends on what we
want to do.  For example, the program for calculating the product of 33 x 77
is as follows:
~r a) ~n~g We enter the data on paper (33 x 77).
~r b) ~n~g We divide the calculation task into simple subroutines.
~r c) ~n~g We use our brain's subroutines for simple calculations (e.g. 3 x 7).
~r d) ~n~g We enter the intermediate results on paper (e.g. 21) for further use.

In a computer, too, we need memory for intermediate results.  This memory
is   available  immediately  and randomly to the  program.   In  computer
jargon,  this memory is called RAM or Random Access Memory.   Data in RAM
can change during the process.
::@2 ~yNo, we  don't.  ~n
::\~gI  think you purposely chose this wrong answer after going through   the
two previous questions. Please try the other answer and learn about ~r RAM ~n~g
or ~hRandom Access Memory in computers. ~n
::#D ~uWhat are our essential needs when we process data? ~n
::@::*1 ~yData, programs and a computing system. ~n
::\~gFor data processing we need data, programs, and a computing system.   We
assume  that data is already available in the computing system,  such  as
data in the computer's ~hRAM (Random Access Memory).~n~g  Computers have
another important memory.  It is called ~hROM or Read Only Memory.~n~g Data
and programs in ROM are always the same and they don't change during
computing processes.  ROM's programs start the computer when we switch on
the power, and they prepare the computer for further programs.
::@2 ~yInput and Output devices.~n
::\~gYou are not wrong.  Data entry and data display are also data
processing.   The most important processing  of data takes place in the
computer's  ~hCentral Processing Unit (CPU).~n~g  Programs for starting the
computer and preparing it for work are stored in an internal memory called
ROM  or Read  Only  Memory.  The data and programs in ROM remain the same
even after we finish our work and switch off the power.
::@3 ~yAll of the above. ~n
::\~gYou are not wrong.  In these questions,  we want to draw your  attention
to  programs available inside the computer.  Please  try  another  answer
and learn about   ~r ROM and Random Access Memory. ~n

::#E ~uWhat are the means of processing data in computer systems? ~n
::@1 ~yThe Central Processing Unit (CPU) and internal memories. ~n
::\~gThe  ~hCentral  Processing Unit (CPU)~n~g can process data available  in   the
computer's  internal memories ~h(ROM and RAM).~n~g  We also need external  data
and  programs.  In the question, we did not mention that the programs are
loaded into RAM, did we?
::@2 ~yThe above systems plus a keyboard, a monitor and disk drives. ~n
::\~gOf   course we need ~hinput and output devices~n~g in our computing systems,
too.   What about data and programs?  We cannot have any data  processing
without data and programs.  A disk drive alone is not enough.  We have to
load data and programs from our disk into RAM first. Then we can  process
data.
::@::*3 ~yAll of the above and more. ~n
::\~g~hYou are correct. ~n~g  In the above list, we  didn't include data and
programs.    Data processing is not possible without data  and  programs.
For many of our data processing applications, we need various peripherals
~h(Input-Output devices).~n~g   The input device might be a keyboard, a mouse,
a  scanner  or a light pen.  The output device might be a  printer  or  a
plotter.  In this question,  Professor  3T  tried to draw your  attention
to  the  data  and programs internal and external to computers.

::#::#4A ~uWhat are the data storage devices in computers? ~n
::#~g~h

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                  ██████  ║ ║   ║ ╟──╜ ╙─ ║ ║    ║ ╙──┘ ╙──╜
                                  ║

                              ████████
                                 ██
                                 ██  ║   ║ ╓──╖
                         ▀▀      ██  ║ │ ║ ║  ║    ▀▀
                                 ██  ╙─┴─╜ ╙──╜

~p~g~h


                       ╔════════════════════════╗
                       ║ COMPUTER SIMPLIFIED II ║
                       ╚════════════════════════╝~n


               ~gIn  part  one  of Computer  Simplified   we
               learned that:  People  have  been computing
               with  their  brains as long  as  they  have
               existed.  We  could  compute in  our  heads
               before we used pen  and  paper.  Now we can
               compute with ~r electronic computers ~n~g and the
               computing procedure is the same as goes  on
               in  our  brains.    ~hWe  use   programs   to
               instruct computers  to  work.~p~g






               The    computers work very fast  and  accu-
               rately. Computers are changing our society.
               Every  day,  more   people   start  to  use
               computers or ~r write programs ~n~g for the first
               time.   Let's  go and find out  more  about
               electronic  computers in the following test
               section.


::@1 ~yRAM and ROM.~n
::\~gNot quite correct.  ~hRAM and ROM are the computer's main internal
memories.~n~g  There are a few old computers which work with their internal
memories  only.   Most computers are connected to disk drives  and  their
magnetic  disks.  These disk drives may be physically  incorporated  into
the   computer  box.   They  are called hard  and  floppy  disk   drives.
Floppy  disk  drives  are  for movable  ~hfloppy  disks~n~g  with relatively
small   data capacities.   Hard  disk drives contain magnetic disks  with
larger   data storage capacities.   We use floppy disks for loading  data
and programs onto the hard disk drives. The ~r RAM ~n~g and disks also exchange
data during computing.
::@2 ~yRAM and ROM plus magnetic disks. ~n
::\~gWe cannot say you are wrong, but we want to draw your attention to other
data  storage devices.  ~r Programs and data ~n~g are first available on
movable  floppy  disks.  We can download data and programs from floppy  disks
onto   the hard  disk.   ~hDuring computing, floppy disks and  hard   disks
interchange data with the RAM.
::@::*3 ~yMore than the above. ~n
::\~g~hNow you have the best answer.  There are also backup systems for data.~n~g
Backup  systems  use magnetic tapes with very high capacities.   We  also
have compact disks (CDs) with very high capacities.  Next to these rather
high capacity data storage systems, there are a host of very small memory
units as well. They are called ~r registers ~n~g and they store small amounts
of data at a time.  These registers function between processing units and
the RAM inside the computer.

::#B ~uDo disks send data to RAM (Random Access Memory) or vice versa? ~n
::@1 ~yRAM only sends data to the disks.~n
::\~gThat  is not correct, because RAM also receives data from the  disk   in
order to interact with the ~r Central Processing Unit (CPU). ~n~g RAM sends the
results to the disk.  Disks send files to RAM.   Files are collections of
data   (e.g. they contain texts, numbers and programs).  RAM uses   files
to  interact with the CPU.  Many programs instruct RAM to  interact  with
the CPU.
::@2 ~yDisks only send data to RAM. ~n
::\~gNot quite.  Although the disk will first send data to RAM, the RAM  will
then interact with the Central Processing Unit ~h(CPU)~n~g and send the results
to the disks. ~r Many programs instruct RAM to interact with the CPU. ~n
::@::*3 ~yThere is a flow of information in both directions between the  disk
 and RAM. ~n
::\::~gIf  data  flowed in only one direction it would  overflow!  ~hRAM must
clear a  part of its memory before it receives more data from the  disks.~n~g
Good going.    RAM  and  the CPU interact with each other.   Programs  in
RAM  instruct  CPU actions.  The CPU sends intermediate results to   RAM.
RAM sends data and instructions for the ~r CPU ~n~g as necessary.  Please try
the  wrong answers.  Even the responses to the wrong answers  will  teach
you more.
::\~g~r Congratulations! ~n~g That was a good start. I'm really happy you got it.
RAM  and the CPU interact with each other.  Programs in  RAM  direct  CPU
actions.  The CPU sends intermediate results to RAM.  RAM sends  data and
instructions  for the CPU as necessary.  ~hTry the other  answers  for more
information on CPU actions.~n

::#C ~uCan any software package run on any computer? ~n
::@1 ~yYes.~n
::\~gThat  would  be nice but, unfortunately, this isn't  correct.   ~hSoftware
packages are written for a particular computer or group of computers  and
cannot work with just any computer.~n~g  All programs must be compatible with
the CPU and the operating system (e.g.~r CPU's ~n~g for IBM and Apple computers
are not the same).
::@::*2 ~yNo.~n
::\~g~r You're right! ~n~g Software packages, application programs, etc. are very
dependent  on  the computer's specific operating system program  and  the
specific Central Processing Unit ~r (CPU) ~n~g within the  computer.   First a
hardware  company produces a new CPU, then a software company  writes  an
operating  system  program  for this CPU.  ~hAn  operating  system  program
written  for  IBM  computers cannot be run on an  Apple  computer.~n~g   Each
software package must be prepared for a specific CPU.

::#D ~uHow do you enter commands into the computer? ~n
::@1 ~yOnly through a program on a disk. ~n
::\~gNo,  I'm afraid not.  You can also ~r enter commands ~n~g by  typing  on   the
keyboard and pressing the RETURN key.  Try again.
::@2 ~yThrough the keyboard only.~n
::\~gNo, where did you dream up this idea?  ~hCommands can also be sent to  the
computer from a disk in the disk drive.~n~g These commands are usually
incorporated into a program.
::@::*3 ~yBoth of the above.~n
::\~gFantastic! You're correct. ~n~g ~hThe commands~n~g could be incorporated into a
program  on a disk in one of the disk drives.  You could also type in
commands using the keyboard.  I am proud of you.  Any input device   can
send commands to the computer.

::#E ~uCan we process data automatically? ~n
::@1 ~yWe have always done that. ~n
::\~gSorry, you are definitely wrong.  How can we do extensive   mathematical
calculations ~r automatically ~n~g with pen and paper?
::@::*2 ~yOnly if we use computers.~n~g
::\~g~r Excellent. ~n~g This is very worthwhile to remember! The most important
advantage   of  computers is that they are  programmable.   By  utilizing
programs we can ~r instruct ~n~g computers what to do, how often to repeat the
same  action, to compare the partial results, to do some more actions, to
call for more data  and  to continue processing until the program's  goal
is  reached.  Once  a program is compiled, it can automatically  instruct
the  computer  without any manual actions.

::#F ~uCan we program computers to be intelligent? ~n
::@1 ~yAs a tool, a computer does not have any intelligence. ~n
::\~gI  don't agree with you.  ~hComputers can be programmed to be intelligent.~n~g
The original ~r intelligence ~n~g in the program comes from the program
designers and the programmers.
::@::*2 ~yComputers  can  store and  retrieve  human  intelligence.~n
::\~g~r Excellent. ~n~g People's Knowledge and intelligence can be stored in
computer memories.  This knowledge can be obtained from the best  experts
on  the  subjects.   System  analysts  prepare the necessary  plans   for
the computer programmers.  ~r Programmers ~n~g then write the programs. These
programs   can  facilitate people's everyday work and  even  teach  them.
Professor 3T is not human. The people who write under this fictitious
name have a little bit of intelligence, don't you agree?  Thank you.
::@3 ~yNone of the above.~n
::\~g~r You are not correct. ~n~g Look at Professor 3T. Didn't you learn with these
tutorials?  Is Professor 3T intelligent?

::#G ~uCan a computer do any job that its program designer and programmer
 cannot do? ~n
::@1 ~yNo, it cannot. ~n
::\~gSorry,  you  are completely wrong.  How many application  programs   are
available for computers?  Do you know anybody  who can perform all  these
jobs?   ~hComputers  work fast and precisely, and they don't get  tired  or
angry.~n~g   Even  if  they get warm from so much work, they  look  for  more
instructions.
::@::*2 ~yYes,  it can. ~n
::\~gThank  you for the acknowledgment.  Computers perform  data   processing
jobs  a thousand times faster than human beings.  Human beings make
mistakes, computers don't. Human beings forget, computers don't. Human
beings  get tired, computers don't.  ~r Human beings ~n~g get angry, computers
don't.  They are always hungry for instructions.
::@3 ~yYes it can, but with a different program. ~n
::\~gSorry, you are not correct.  ~r Even ~n~g on the same job, a computer performs
much better than the producers of its programs.

::#H ~uWhat are the areas of computer applications? ~n
::@1 ~yWord processing, accounting, data bases, games, education and many
 other areas have application programs to make our tasks easier. ~n
::\~gYou  are not quite correct.  In all these areas, we still have an   open
field.  As an example, ~r computers are now tools in education. ~n~g Their use
has not yet been fully realized.  Societies around the world are
suffering from educational paralysis.   The constraints in existing educational
systems are  enormous.  We just teach as much as we think we can, not  as
much   as really needs to be taught.  We are not even in the position  to
think  about  vitally important educational objectives such as  educating
ourselves,  being  more adaptable  to this changing  world  and  becoming
human beings good  enough to stop dangerous trends.
::@::*2 ~yMore than the above. ~n
::\~g~hComputers can be used wherever we have to use our brains as  individuals
or  as a group.~n~g  The key is more programs.  Most of us are aware  of  the
general business application programs.  But ~hstatistics~n~g show that  sales
volumes  for  special  software is much higher than  for  the  well-known
application  program  packages.   The ~r limiting factor ~n~g is  the  planners'
imaginations and the availability of system analysts and programmers.  Do
we have enough computer tutorials?

::#::#5A ~uA HARDWARE DEVICE is defined as: ~n
::#~g~h


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                      ██████ ╙──╜ ║   ║ ╟──╜ ╙──╜  ╙── ╙──┘ ║
                                        ║
                     ██   ██
                     ██   ██             ║
                     ███████ ┌──╖ ╓──┐╓──╢ ║   ║ ┌──╖ ╓──┐ ╓──╖
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~p~g~h


                           ╔═══════════════════╗
                           ║ COMPUTER HARDWARE ║
                           ╚═══════════════════╝~n


               ~gThere   are  thousands  of   sophisticated
               products and systems  to  facilitate   more
               convenience in our everyday life.   One  of
               them is the computing system.  Why don't we
               use ~r HARDWARE  and SOFTWARE ~n~g terms in other
               products    and   system    communications,
               transportation,  energy conservation,   and
               other  various manufacturing systems?   The
               reason is that the role of the programs and
               ~p~g




               ~r data processing ~n~g in computing systems  are
               tremendously    more  important  than   the
               same role in other systems.  Therefore, the
               early  developers of the computing  systems
               had   to  emphasize the program  parts   by
               introducing  the terms,    SOFTWARE,    and
               its   spouse,    the HARDWARE  parts  of  a
               computing system.  An easy rule to remember
               is...whatever   you   see  in  a  computing
               ~p~g





               system  is   HARDWARE.    Do  look  in  the
               ~r GLOSSARY ~n~g  provided  on this disk  for   a
               more  informative description  on  HARDWARE
               and SOFTWARE.    Now!  Let us show you what
               we  know  about  describing  the  different
               HARDWARE  parts of the  computing   system.
               Let's go to the test session of this lesson
               and learn more.

::@1 ~yA device that stores computer programs. ~n
::\~gYou   are   half right!!!   Certain hardware will  have   some    stored
computer programs such as in ~hROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)~n~g or ~hRAM (RANDOM
ACCESS MEMORY).~n~g   But programs and instructions are also  stored on   the
surface of a floppy disk, hard disk, back-up tapes  and tape
cartridges.   Programs, data  and ~r instructions ~n~g  are definitely  considered
SOFTWARE.   So,   HARDWARE is defined as  ...ELECTRONIC  AND   MECHANICAL
DEVICES  OF THE DATA  PROCESSING  OR COMPUTER SYSTEM.
::@2 ~yAnything that concerns input or output data. ~n
::\~gOOPS! Sorry, you were not correct.  INPUT and OUTPUT data may  be   a
complete  program,   a series of instructions or  bits   of  information.
All data is SOFTWARE. ~r SOFTWARE ~n~g can be stored on the surface  of  a
FLOPPY or HARD DISK,  magnetic  back-up  tapes, tape cartridges,  in  ROM
or  RAM.  ~hThe electronic and mechanical parts, DISK  DRIVES  and the  CPU
itself, are  known as HARDWARE.~n~g   That is why  HARDWARE is defined
as ...  ELECTRONIC  AND  MECHANICAL DEVICES OF THE DATA  PROCESSING   OR
COMPUTER SYSTEM.
::@::*3 ~yA device that contains the electronic and mechanical machinery  of
 the computer data processing. ~n
::\~g~r HOORAY!! ~n~g  You are off to a good start!  Keep it  up!!  HARDWARE
is   defined  as  any  computer  device  that  contains  electronic    or
mechanical MACHINERY. Some  ~hHARDWARE~n~g is considered as peripheral to the
computer.   The most common ~r accessories ~n~g are PRINTERS, DISK  DRIVES  and
MODEMS.

::#B ~uWHAT IS A CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)? ~n
::@::*1 ~yA device that finds, transfers, compares, calculates,
 manipulates, controls and combines data as instructed by programs.~n
::\~g~hRight  on!!~n~g It pleases me to see that you are learning.  The CPU is a
very  powerful system of HARDWARE that carefully follows   every  program
instruction.
~hA  CPU  TRANSFERS  DATA  DIRECTLY TO OR  FROM  SPECIFIED  STORAGE  AREAS.
It Compares, calculates, manipulates, controls and combines data. ~n~g
A  CPU  can have several hundred  thousand  electronic components   which
facilitate     all   CPU   functions,    followed   by  relevant  program
instructions.
::@2 ~yA processor that stores, reads and writes data. ~n
::\^^::~gWELL--Almost correct!!  The CPU does have REGISTERS as a holding
area for sequential instructions and calculating data.  But it is not a
storage  device similar to ~r RAM or ROM. ~n~g Registers are very small
storage areas within the CPU.  The CPU does much more than store data in
its registers.  It..
TRANSFERS DATA DIRECTLY TO OR FROM SPECIFIED STORAGE AREAS.
COMPARES, CALCULATES, MANIPULATES, CONTROLS AND COMBINES DATA.
Of course, the CPU performs one action at a time and the speed  of  those
actions depends on the control clock rate or clock frequency.
::@3 ~yA processing and storage device for ROM and RAM. ~n
::\^^::~gSorry! No cigar this time.  The CPU is responsible for fetching
and sending data to ROM and RAM.  ~r Both RAM and ROM store data. ~n~g The
CPU follows every instruction to...
TRANSFER DATA DIRECTLY TO OR FROM SPECIFIED STORAGE AREAS.
COMPARES, CALCULATES, MANIPULATES, CONTROLS AND COMBINES DATA.

::#C ~uWhich of the following parts are called HARDWARE? ~n
::@1 ~yAll electronic parts, especially the CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
 and the disk drives. ~n
::\~gI  can give you good news and bad news.   The good news  is   that   you
are  correct...up to a point.   The bad news is...you are  not   entirely
correct.  It is true the electronic parts of a computer are HARDWARE.  So
is  the disk  drive.  However, the case, screen and the mechanical  parts
of  the computer are also HARDWARE.   ~hThe simplest  rule to  remember  is
that any computer, or its  parts, or any of its  accessories that you can
see or touch... IS HARDWARE. ~n
::@2 ~yThe keyboard and the screen. ~n
::\~gSorry!    Your answer is like climbing a greased pole.   You  may    get
part  way  up  the pole,  but you will never get to the   top  with  this
answer.    You are correct in saying that the  keyboard and   screen  are
hardware,    but you still did not go far enough.  The    disk    drives,
the cables and all computer parts and accessories are also classified
as  hardware.    An easy way to recall the  correct  answer  is  to
remember  that any computer,  its  ~hparts and   any  of  its   accessories
that  you  can  see   or   touch ...IS HARDWARE.  ~n
::@::*3 ~yAll of the above. ~n
::\~gSmart thinking!  You did not get trapped by ~r "half truths". ~n~g  You are
absolutely  correct.   When you keep in  mind  that  any  computer,   its
parts  or  accessories that you can see or touch is  HARDWARE,  then  any
simple question cannot trip you up.

::#D ~uWhat does the CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) DO? ~n
::@1 ~yIt calculates, manipulates and processes  data.  ~n
::\~gOh!  Oh!  You just made a 20 foot dive into a 3 foot deep  pool.   Don't
ever  jump  until you know ALL the  facts.   You were correct  in  saying
that   the  ~hCPU  calculates,   manipulates   and  processes data.~n~g  But
the  CPU does much more!  It also  ~hmoves data ~n~gto and  from  storage  and
also compares and combines data as  per instructions from the  operating
system,   the disk operating  system and the particular  program  in use.
::@2 ~yIt finds, moves and stores data.  ~n
::\~gCheckmate!    You   just  walked into a  seductive  trap   filled   with
partial truths.   Yes!   ~hThe CPU does find,  move and store data.~n~g  But
that  is  only  a small part  of  the  CPU's  total responsibility.   The
CPU also calculates, manipulates, compares, combines  and processes  data
as   directed  by  the operating system, disk operating  system  and  the
program's instructions as well.
::@3 ~yIt compares and combines data. ~n
::\~gLet's   clear   the   "cobwebs"   for   a     better    understanding.
Comparing    and    combining   data    is    not   an accurate  response
because   the   CPU  may  receive  all  kinds   of    instructions  on  a
particular task that  do  not include  the above.   The CPU  is like    a
robot   that  methodically  follows the instructions given   it   by  the
operating    system,     the  ~r  disk   operating  system  ~n~g  or  the
particular program  to  find,   move or  store data,     to    calculate,
manipulate,  compare,   combine   or  process  data.    For  such a small
thing,   the  CPU  does an amazingly huge amount of  complicated work  in
such  a very  short amount of time.
::@::*4 ~yAll of the above. ~n
::\~gCongratulations!   Your  choice  showed  great  wisdom  of avoiding  the
trap  of  half-truths. ~r The CPU ~n~g is the amazingly  well-coordinated
complex  "brain"   of   the  computer.  The CPU  fetches   and   complies
with   each  instructions  (one at a time  and in  consecutive order)  as
may  be  directed by the  operating  system,  the  disk operating  system
or the program  to carry out the specific  series of  tasks.    The   CPU
then   moves    data  to   or   from  storage,  calculates,  manipulates,
compares,  combines  or processes  the  data as  instructed.   ~hThe CPU is
also   amazingly  fast, performing  each step four or more million  times
per second. ~n

::#E ~uHow does the CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) work? ~n
::@1 ~yBy internal instructions to the CPU. ~n
::\~gWHOA!    Your   answer  is like carrying five gallons  of  water  in   a
teaspoon.   You  got  part of the answer but you need  more  to  make  it
correct.  ~hFirst,~n~g  the CPU does receive internal instructions. They  can
be instructions from ROM or RAM.  ~hSecond,~n~g  the CPU also receives
external instructions from the KEYBOARD,  the FLOPPY DISK (by way of the
disk  drive),   tape drive or from another computer via telephone hookup
to a modem.
::@2 ~yBy external instructions to the CPU. ~n
::\~gWHOA!  Your answer is reducing your score.  You got part of the   answer
but not enough of it to be completely correct.  ~hFirst,~n~g the CPU can
receive  instructions   from  another computer via telephone hookup to  a
modem  or from the keyboard.    ~hSecond,~n~g   the  CPU also  receives
internal instructions.   They can be instructions from  ROM or RAM.
::@::*3 ~yBy both internal and external instructions to the CPU. ~n
::\~gYou're  correct! You have just earned one more ego trip!  The ~r CPU ~n~g does
receive  instructions  from the RAM and the ROM.  The CPU  also  receives
instructions from the keyboard, disks (by way of the disk drives) or from
another computer via telephone hookup to a ~r modem. ~n~g

::#::#6A ~uDo floppy disks and hard disk drives supply the storage/memory
 essential for computing? ~n
::#~g~h


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                     ██ █ ██
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~p~g~h


                           ╔══════════════════╗
                           ║ I. SPEED FACTORS ║
                           ╚══════════════════╝~n

               ~gWe have already become acquainted with  RAM
               (RANDOM   ACCESS MEMORY) and   ROM   (READ-
               ONLY  MEMORY),   floppy  disks,  hard  disk
               drives, ~r compact disks (CD) ~n~g  and  magnetic
               tapes.  The memory  capacities  and  access
               times   for  RAM,  ROM and  numerous  other
               storage  devices are crucial  factors    in
               the   implementation speed  of a program or
               processing  data.
~p~h

                      ╔═══════════════════════════╗
                      ║ II. ACCESS TIMES COMPARED ║
                      ╚═══════════════════════════╝~n

               ~gRAM and ROM are very fast.  Magnetic  disks
               have  comparatively long access times   but
               have  high storage  capacities.    Magnetic
               tapes     have    very    high      storage
               capacities  but  slower access  times,   so
               are  often used as ~r backup storage ~n~g facili-
               ties.     Compact    disks   have    faster
               access   times and higher  storage  capaci-
               ties  than  floppy   disks,    hard  drives
               or   magnetic tapes,   but  can   only   be
               read  (meaning  CD's  are  used  with   the
               information  already stored on them;    you
               can't  currently use your computer to store
               or exchange data on CD's).


::@1 ~yYes.~n
::\~gThat is not a valid choice.  If you read the question  carefully,
you  will observe that it asked  about  memory.   For  computing
requirements, there are ~r RAM and ROM. ~n~g  Under certain conditions, we
can  utilize registers built into the CPU for storage.  Storage devices
prevent the user from having to compose a  program  over  and  over
repeatedly.  When you  acquire  a  new software package, it is stored  on
a floppy disk and you have  to install the program into memory using  the
floppy drive.  You  can likewise  duplicate  the  programs and data  onto
a   hard  drive, enabling  you to store the floppy disk in a safe  place.
~hHaving duplicate  copies of programs and data is extremely  vital.~n~g  You
could  lose  programs  and data on your hard  drive,  or  on  the initial
floppy disk.  This does occur, so it is best to create  a back-up copy of
the floppy disk or the hard drive.
::@::*2 ~yNo. ~n
::\~g~hBRAVO!  For  computing we need numerous kinds of memory and storage.~n~g
Floppy  disks  are used  to place  programs and data into  the  computer.
Typically,   this procedure will take place only once.  Hard  drives  are
outstanding storage devices,  allowing   a  much  higher  storage  volume
than    a   floppy   disk. Registers  are used as small  storage  devices
within  the CPU.  RAM sends and  receives  data  and programs.   ROM  can
only  send  out information, but also  has  an array of  programs  inside
itself which are permanently stored.   Hard  drives  are excellent
storage  devices, but you also need a floppy  drive to copy programs and
data to the hard drive.   Hard drives are not infallible, though.  A good
idea is to make ~r backup copies ~n~g of your programs and data stored on the
hard drive.   That way, you will always have a copy of everything if  the
hard  drive fails.

::#B ~uWhy do most computer systems with a hard drive also have a floppy
 drive? ~n
::@::*1 ~yFloppy drives are generally used for data input. ~n
::\~g~r Great! ~n~g You chose correctly.  We need a floppy to copy programs
and data to the hard drive.  ~hHard drives are  considered a  NON-REMOVABLE
disk.~n~g   Since  you cannot remove a hard drive,  or place  a  floppy  disk
inside,  you need some way to place new programs and data onto it.   This
is  why it is not practical to have just a hard drive. Floppy disks   are
also  used to make backup copies of the  programs and data stored on  the
hard drives.
::@2 ~yHard drive prices are falling rapidly. ~n
::\~gNope,   no   gold star for this answer.  Yes,  hard  drive   prices  are
falling  rapidly,  but the main reason for having a hard drive   is   the
higher  storage capacity.  Since you can  read  data from and write  data
to  a  hard  drive, this makes it more desirable  than a  floppy   drive.
Also  needed   is a floppy drive to enable the hard drive   to  get   new
programs and  data.  Programs purchased  from  a software  store  are  on
a   floppy disk(s),  so they can  be  copied onto  a hard  drive.   Also,
hard  drives are not  perfect.   ~hFloppy disks  can  be used to backup the
programs  and data stored  on  a hard  drive, so that if the  hard  drive
fails or loses data,  you still have a duplicate on floppy disks.~n
::@3 ~yNone of the above. ~n
::\~gHow   did you decide on this answer?  When  microcomputers  were   first
available, ~r only floppy ~n~g drives were available as a  storage device.  Now
hard  drives are popular as storage devices.   With a  hard  drive,   the
need   to  access a floppy drive  becomes  less  important.    With  hard
drives,   access  time   is   quicker,  plus you  don't  have   to   keep
transferring    disks   every   time you want  to  use  a   new  program.
Hard  drives  can  become full fairly quickly, though,  so some  kind  of
file maintenance should  be done on a regular  basis. ~hAvoid packing  your
hard drive with  unnecessary files.~n

::#C ~uDo we truly require costly backup tape drives? ~n
::@1 ~yYes. ~n
::\~gNot exactly. The storage capacity of 5.25" and 3.5" diskettes are
increasing  all the time.  There are various levels of storage  capacity.
The  most prevalent storage diskette is  the  5.25", 360k (1024 bytes  is
called a kilobyte), but this is changing with new  technology  available.
~r Both 5.25" and  3.5"  diskettes  are called REMOVABLE diskettes. ~n~g  A  hard
drive is called a FIXED disk.  As a result of the greater storage
capacity, it is preferable to produce backup files on ~h3.5"~n~g diskettes.
3.5"   diskettes  are physically  smaller  than  ~h5.25"~n~g  diskettes   and
normally store more data.  The DOS files included with IBM-compatible
computers has a backup/restore program.  There are also
backup programs sold commercially.  It is up to the individuals to
decide  which  program works better for them.
::@2 ~yNo. ~n
::\~gSomewhat correct.  It's not critical to purchase a tape  backup   system
in  order to back up the files on a hard drive. You can use ~h5.25"~n~g   or
~h3.5"~n~g diskettes  to make a backup of  your  hard  drive  system.  3.5"
diskettes more are advantageous than 5.25" diskettes  due to  the  larger
storage  capacity of 3.5"  diskettes.   With  the backup   programs
included with the DOS system files of the  IBM-compatible computers, you
can ensure that your data and programs  will  be safe  in case your  hard
drive  fails.   Backing up your hard  drive is a  wonderful  practice  to
develop and maintain.
::@::*3 ~yNone of the above. ~n
::\~g~hThat's correct!  You answered appropriately!~n~g  It is best to make
a backup of your entire hard drive, but you can also just back up
a  subdirectory.    This can be performed on a  tape  backup  system   or
by   using  diskettes.   On the ~r DOS ~n~g system  diskettes furnished with
your  computer,  there is a backup program that will allow   you  to  use
diskettes for backing up your files  and  data. 3.5"  diskettes are
well-suited for backing up files, due to the higher storage capacity.
Backing  up  your hard  drive  is  extremely important   and    not    to
be   overlooked.   Many    people   and corporations  implement   backups
on  Fridays,   prior  to  quitting time.   This  way,  they do not   lose
crucial   information  or programs.

::#D ~uCan you erase a program stored in ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)? ~n
::@1 ~yYes. ~n
::\~gYou  didn't get it right this time.  ~hROM is a uniquely  designed  memory
device that has programs and instructions permanently installed  by   the
manufacturer.~n~g   ROM  is  also  called  FIRMWARE because it  is  a   cross
between hardware and software. ~r ROM ~n~g  cannot be erased by the computer or
its  operator.  The purpose of ROM is to do specific operations, such  as
loading the OPERATING  SYSTEMS PROGRAMS when you switch on the  computer.
This  is  referred to as a  ~hCOLD  BOOT.~n~g  When you press  RESET, or the
RESET   COMBINATION KEYS,  while the computer is still on, ROM will  then
reload   the OPERATING  SYSTEM  PROGRAMS  into memory.  This  is   called
~hWARM BOOTING. ~n
::@::*2 ~yNo.  ~n
::\~gYes,  that  is  correct.  Isn't it pleasing to  know  you  are  correct?
~hROM  is  placed on a microchip  and  is  designed  to permanently    hold
the programs stored in it.~n~g  The  microchip  is called  the ROM CHIP.   It
includes  the programs and  instructions essential  for  the   computer's
operations.   ~hThe  programs   and instructions are permanently  installed
by the manufacturer.~n~g   ROM will not be erased when the computers power is
turned  off.   It is installed   into  the  computer,  to   relieve   the
operator    of  repeatedly  writing routine instructions every  time  the
computer  is  turned on.  ~hROM also contains programs needed  to  BOOT (or
"call")   other    programs.~n~g    There   are   also   microchips    called
~r EPROMS ~n~g (Erasable-Programmable  Read  Only Memory), which allow  you to
permanently    store   your  own programs or  to store  commonly    used
programs such as BASIC.

::#E ~uIs RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY) a storage area for data, the memory
 of which can only partly be erased by turning off the electrical
 current to the computer? ~n
::@1 ~yYes.  ~n
::\~gYou  were  only partly correct by selecting this answer.    First,   you
were  correct  when you distinguished that RAM is a   specially  designed
piece   of   hardware   (~r RAM ~n~g is physically located on microchips
somewhere  in your computer) for storage  of  programs and   data.    RAM
differs from ~r ROM ~n~g in that RAM can and will be erased when the computer's
power  is turned off.   ~hNothing in  RAM  can   be  permanently stored~n~g  in
RAM.    Only  ROM  has  the ability  to permanently  hold  data and
programs -- even when the computer's power is off.  RAM also holds all
necessary  programs for immediate usage by the CPU.
::@::*2 ~yNo.~n
::\~g~hYou  are absolutely correct. RAM is a temporary storage device used to
store  data  and programs.~n~g  Any data or programs  will  be  erased   when
loading   new  programs or when  the  power  to  the computer   is   shut
off. ~hRAM is also used for communicating with the  CPU.~n~g  Before the
power to the computer is  shut  off,  any changed  or  new data should be
transferred  to  a   more  permanent storage device,  such  as  a  floppy
diskette or a hard disk.

::#F ~uWhere do programs and data reside? ~n
::@1 ~yIn internal storage. ~n
::\~gOnly half right.   The computer typically has a finite but permanent
storage  space called ROM (READ ONLY  MEMORY)  and   is  primarily
designed  for use  by the  ~r O/S (OPERATING SYSTEM). ~n~g Another internal
storage is RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY) which has a far greater capacity
than ROM, large  enough  to  hold  most programs and  data  required.
However, most computers also  depend on  some  form  of external  storage
to  hold  programs  that  the computer uses at varying times.  Typically,
word   processors  and  spreadsheets  are  so  sizable that  an  enormous
supply  of  memory would be mandatory to hold them both.  By  using  only
the    program  you need, then getting rid of it before loading   another
program,  the amount of RAM used can be kept smaller.  Internal   storage
devices  (RAM  and  ROM)  are essential as a result of the  swift  access
times  needed  to perform data processing.
::@2 ~yIn external storage.  ~n
::\~gNope, only half right. ~r External storage is partially correct. ~n~g It is
needed to load new programs and data into the computer.   Most  computers
require diskettes  and hard drives to retain programs  and data that  are
not necessary at any given time. There are two divisions of internal
storage. One,  ROM, generally  has  limited but  permanent  storage
space   and  is   primarily   intended  for  utilization  by    the   O/S
(OPERATING SYSTEM).   The second internal storage  is  RAM which  has   a
larger  storage   capability  than  ROM,  but   is   erasable.   ~hInternal
storage  is essential because of the rapid access times   necessary  for
data processing. ~n
::@::*3 ~yIn both internal and external storage. ~n
::\~g~r Congratulations! ~n~g Get yourself a lollipop!  External storage, such as
diskettes or hard drives ~hare essential  to  hold  large programs.~n~g  RAM or
ROM  cannot possess a lot of programs in memory, so  we rely on  external
devices   to  retain large programs for  us.  When needed,  the  programs
are loaded into ~r RAM ~n~g and used.  ~r ROM ~n~g is intended primarily for
communicating with the ~r O/S  (OPERATING SYSTEM). ~n~g  RAM has a larger
storage   capacity   than   ROM  but programs  stored in RAM  are  erased
when  new programs  are   loaded or  when  the  computer  is  turned off.
ROM stores programs permanently.

::#G ~uWhy do we use RAM instead of a floppy disk to run programs and
 process data? ~n
::@1 ~yMy computer does use the floppy disk to run programs and
 process data. ~n
::\~gIt  might appear that way, especially if your computer   accesses   your
floppy disk a lot, but no, RAM is much more effective to use in   running
programs.  ~hRAM has a much faster access  time  than floppy disks or  hard
disk  drives.~n~g  RAM is also used by the CPU, disks are not.   Access  time
between  the CPU and a floppy disk or even a hard disk  drive  would
severely reduce the computer's speed,  making it  a very slow tool to use.
If this were  so, even  a  hand-held calculator would work faster.
::@::*2 ~yAccess time to and from RAM is much shorter than access time to
 and from a floppy disk system. ~n
::\~g~hBravo!~n~g  RAM's main task is to temporarily  store  data and programs,
but  also to interact with the CPU.   RAM has a  very  short access time,
which makes it better suited to run programs than a floppy disk or a hard
disk drive.  ~hBy using RAM, a CPU  can   perform millions  of instructions
per  second.~n~g  Attempting to use the same operations between the CPU and a
floppy  disk  would impair the  computer's  operations.

::#H ~uWhat can ROM accomplish that RAM cannot?~n
::@::*1 ~yROM keeps the necessary initial instructions and programs
 permanently stored within its memory. ~n
::\~g~r Great! ~n~g  You are correct to say that ROM is non-destructible. ROM
memory  is  programmed  and  installed  by  the   computer's manufacturer
to  store  the ~r OPERATING  SYSTEM ~n~g  and other short supervisory  programs
in  order to facilitate the  computer's  operations. RAM,  on  the  other
hand,   has a perishable memory  that  requires that power be kept on  in
order  to  retain the current  storage of any program  or  data  recently
loaded.
::@2 ~yRAM can accomplish all the functions that ROM performs. ~n
::\~gPlease   exercise more caution when choosing answers like this one.
An answer like this one might make a computer  think  it's smarter!   RAM
can function like ~r ROM, ~n~g with the ability to store data and programs.
But  this  is where the resemblance ends.   RAM has  the   capability  of
temporarily  storing data  and  programs.  But these are erased when  new
data or programs are loaded. ~r RAM ~n~g  also loses all data and programs when
the  power  is turned off or  new programs are loaded into RAM.  ROM,  on
the  other  hand,  keeps   all data  and   programs  stored   permanently
once  entered.   When  the computer is cold or warm booted, ROM runs  the
proper programs   to load the necessary programs to operate the  computer
efficiently.

::#::#7A ~uA PROGRAM is defined as: ~n
::#~g~h


                    ██████
                    ██     ╓──╖ ╓─┬─╖ ╓──╖ ╥  ╥ ─╫── ╓──╖ ╓──┐
                    ██     ║  ║ ║ │ ║ ║  ║ ║  ║  ║   ╟──╜ ║
                    ██████ ╙──╜ ║   ║ ╟──╜ ╙──╜  ╙── ╙──┘ ║
                                      ║
                   ██████
                   ██               ║
                   ██████ ╓──╖ ╓──┐─╫──  ║   ║ ┌──╖ ╓──┐ ╓──╖
                       ██ ║  ║─╫──  ║    ║ │ ║ ╓──╢ ║    ╟──╜
                   ██████ ╙──╜ ║    ╙──┘ ╙─┴─╜ ╙──╜ ║    ╙──┘



~p~g~h


                     ╔═══════════════════════════════╗
                     ║ I. COMPUTER HARDWARE/SOFTWARE ║
                     ╚═══════════════════════════════╝~n


               ~gAll    computer  hardware is just  a   mass
               of  circuitry  that  cannot operate   until
               it  is   told  what to  do.    It  is   the
               SOFTWARE  that commands  the  activity   of
               the  computer.   ~r SOFTWARE ~n~g is the  set  of
               instructions  (PROGRAMS)   that the comput-
               er  can  read  to make   it  execute   some
               purpose or function.

~p~g~h

                ╔═══════════════════════════════════════╗
                ║ II. SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE ║
                ╚═══════════════════════════════════════╝~n


               ~gFundamental   computer tasks are  performed
               by  the ~r SYSTEM  SOFTWARE. ~n~g  This  software
               takes  care  of recurring chores  such   as
               displaying    characters  on your  monitor,
               acknowledging  key-presses,   loading  pro-
               grams  into  memory,  a read/write of  data
               to/from the disk,   etc.  Typically, system
               software  is furnished  by the  manufactur-
               er  in the form of the  ~r OPERATING SYSTEM. ~n~g


::@1 ~yA set of instructions in random order to direct the operation of a
 computer for a specific purpose. ~n
::\~gSorry,  that is not correct.  If the program was  written in  a   random
order, the computer would become confused, or you might have a arbitrary
assortment of characters, numbers and symbols exhibited that
even the best computer user could  not  decipher. All  programs  must  be
written   in a particular  arrangement. ~r Programs ~n~g  are customarily
prepared ahead of time by a  programmer so  that data and information can be
processed for a  established operation.
::@::*2 ~yAlgorithms plus data.  ~n
::\~gGood!  A PROGRAM  is defined as algorithms plus data, but must  also  be
written in a precise, orderly manner to direct the computer to perform  a
particular function. An ALGORITHM is a course of action for achieving a
set objective.  An algorithm can be a set of instructions, known as
functions, subroutines or procedures.  ~r DATA STRUCTURES ~n~g are the objects in
memory  that  ALGORITHMS work on.  Computers need algorithms as  well  as
data in order to work properly.
::@3 ~yA series of subroutines and instructions to operate the computer,
 plus its storage devices and peripherals.  ~n
::\~gThis  may sound like a good answer, but it's  not. Subroutines may be
placed in a program.  Every program must have a  set  of instructions  to
work    satisfactorily.   While the computer needs ~r RAM and ROM ~n~g to
transfer  data  into other devices (such as the floppy disk or  monitor),
these other devices are not  mandatory in order  for the program to work.
A  program that   will count  from  1 to  10,000 does not need to display
the  numbers  while  calculating and does not require  input   from   the
keyboard.

::#B ~uWhat is defined as the main program groups?~n
::@1 ~yAll groups of instructions for data processing. ~n
::\~gNo. ~hInstructions  consist of a collaboration of characters that
describe   the  operations  to  be  performed  by  the    computer.
Instructions  typically have an operation code and an operand.   STATEMENTS
comprise    one     or    more  instructions.    SUBROUTINES,   FUNCTIONS
and  PROCEDURES  may  have one  or  more  STATEMENTS.~n~g   This  fundamental
explanation  is  worth keeping in mind as we  go through the tutorial.
::@2 ~yLanguage and system programs. ~n
::\~gThis  choice is  almost correct.   ~r PROGRAMMING  LANGUAGES ~n~g  and
OPERATING  SYSTEM  programs can be described as two main groups   of  programs.
There are quite a few programming languages and  very few computers  have
all   of   languages available to them.    Operating   system    programs
are additional significant program  groups.  ~hOperating system programs
are written  for  a  particular  computer hardware system.  Whenever a new
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) is developed,   an  operating
system   program  is   needed to  communicate between  the  CPU  and  the
peripherals.~n~g    These  are   but two  program groups.    Try   the  other
answers for more  information  about  the other groups.
::@::*3 ~yAll of the above plus applications programs. ~n
::\~g~r Excellent. ~n~g  The main program groupings are the  ~hPROGRAMMING
LANGUAGES,  OPERATING   SYSTEM PROGRAMS  and   APPLICATION    PROGRAMS.~n~g
These  groups  consists of ~hINSTRUCTIONS and STATEMENTS, in the  form   of
SUBROUTINES,   FUNCTIONS  and  PROCEDURES.~n~g   Subroutines,  functions  and
procedures  consist   of  a collection of one  or  more   statements.   A
statement   consists of one or more  instructions.   Instructions  are  a
set of characters specifying a single operation.
::@4 ~yAll of the above plus compilers and interpreters.  ~n
::\~gSorry, no. ~hAny  high-level computer language must have either a
COMPILER  or  an INTERPRETER in order to function.~n~g Compilers translate
high-level  language  instructions into  MACHINE   LANGUAGE  instructions
that can directly  interact  with the computer itself. A program written
in  a high-level  language  ~r (BASIC,  PASCAL, etc.) ~n~g is  called  the
SOURCE  CODE.    A compiler   translates  the entire program of  English-
like words of the source code into machine language before the  program
begins to run.  ~hAn interpreter  translates  instructions   during
program  execution.~n~g    The interpreter  must read each instruction one at
a time  and  figure  out the requested operation.

::#C ~uWhat are SUBROUTINES, STATEMENTS and INSTRUCTIONS? ~n
::@1 ~ySubroutines are segments of programs that are called and
 executed frequently. ~n
::\~gYou are partially correct. ~hSubroutines are small segments of a
program.~n~g   Subroutines are executed when called by some other part of a
program, usually the main routine.  Also, a subroutine  can be  "nested",
meaning  that  it can be called by another  subroutine.  Some   languages
allow   RECURSION   programming,  meaning  that  a  subroutine  can  call
itself.
::@2 ~ySubroutines  can incorporate some statements.  ~n
::\~gWe already know that subroutines can have one or more statements,
but  this  is not the complete answer to  the   question.  Please
select answer ~r No.1 ~n~g to learn a bit more about subroutines.
::@::*3 ~yBoth the above answers may incorporate some instructions. ~n
::\~g~r Perfect! Subroutines ~n~g are segments of a program.  Subroutines are
usually  called  from  another part of the program,  such  as   the  main
routine,   but   can also be called  by  another  subroutine.  Calls   to
subroutines   by   other  subroutines are   called  NESTED   SUBROUTINES.
Subroutines can incorporate one or more  statements. Statements have  one
or more instructions.  Instructions are a set of  characters   specifying
a single operation.  There are three actions involved in the INSTRUCTION
CYCLE:~r 1.~n~g FETCHING DATA, ~r 2.~n~g DECODING DATA, and ~r 3.~n~g EXECUTING the
action to be performed.
::@4 ~yNone of the above. ~n
::\~gSorry,   this  is  not a good answer.   Please  note:  Subroutines   are
segments    of   a   program. Subroutines  are   usually   called    from
another  part of the program (such as the main routine) but  can also  be
called by  another subroutine.  Calls to  subroutines  by other
subroutines  are called ~r NESTED SUBROUTINES. ~n~g  Subroutines can incorporate one
or more statements.  Statements have one or more instructions. Instructions
are  a  set of characters specifying   a  single   operation.
There   are  three  actions   involved   in  the INSTRUCTION  CYCLE:  ~r 1.~n~g
FETCHING   DATA, ~r 2.~n~g DECODING DATA, and ~r 3.~n~g EXECUTING the action to be
performed.

::#D ~uWhat are APPLICATION  PROGRAMS?~n
::@1 ~yCustomized software. ~n
::\~gThis  is not the best answer.  Programs  prepared  specifically for    a
business, institution or organization  and  tailored  for specific  needs
are called ~r CUSTOMIZED SOFTWARE. ~n
::@2 ~ySubject-oriented  programs. ~n
::\~gSorry,  no cigar.  The term "subject-oriented program" is too  vague  to
apply here.  ~r All APPLICATION PROGRAMS ~n~g are subject-oriented
programs. Programming language programs are also  subject-oriented
programs.   Operating system software  is  very subject-oriented.
::@3 ~yAll of the above. ~n
::\~gNot quite.  Programs prepared specifically for a business, institution
or  organization  and tailored for specific  needs   are  called
~r CUSTOMIZED SOFTWARE. ~n~g  The term subject-oriented program is too vague to
apply  here.   Operating  system software,   application  programs,   and
programming  language  programs  are all  examples   of  subject-oriented
software.
::@::*4 ~yNone of the above.  ~n
::\~g~hCorrect! ~n~g  Software  can  be divided into three  main   groupings:
~r 1.~n~g system  software, ~r 2.~n~g programming language programs,  and ~r 3.~n~g
application  programs.    If   a program is not in  the  system  software   or
programming   language   category, then it  is  an  application  program.
Application   programs  can  be  customized  programs  or   off-the-shelf
(commercially developed)  programs.  Off-the-shelf programs  are software
packages  for businesses  and general purposes, such as  a word processor
or the  ~r PROFESSOR 3T tutorials.~n
::#E ~uWhere are the O/S (OPERATING SYSTEM) programs stored? ~n
::@1 ~yIn RAM. ~n
::\~gNope,  sorry. ~r The O/S is permanently stored in ROM memory. ~n~g These
valuable    supervisory   programs   are   essential   for  automatically
loading programs from peripheral storage  devices. One  example  of   O/S
programs  is  the   program  that  loads  the program from  disk  to  the
computer  when the computer is  initially turned  on.   This is  referred
to as the BOOT-UP program.  The program that the O/S loads initially
is  part of the  ~r DISK OPERATING  SYSTEM. ~n~g  Once loaded into RAM,
DOS  can take  over  and assist  the O/S in the transfer  of  application
programs and  help in supervising the programs' operations.
::@::*2 ~yIn ROM.~n
::\~g~hAbsolutely correct!   The  O/S does  reside  in  ROM   memory.~n~g
Programs   stored  in ROM cannot be erased.  DOS  (DISK   OPERATING  SYSTEM)
resides   on  a disk and only those  programs   needed   for  supervisory
computer  operations are used.  DOS is copied and stored  into RAM  where
it  becomes  active in assisting the ~hO/S  to supervise  application
programs. ~n
::@3 ~yOn disks more commonly known as the DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS).~n
::\~gThis is a wrong answer.  ~hThe O/S resides in the ROM memory.~n~g  It is the
O/S  that instructs and supervises the  first  stage  of loading the ~hDISK
OPERATING  SYSTEM  (DOS) programs into RAM.~n~g   Once this has  been
accomplished,  the loaded DOS programs take over and help  the   O/S  maintain
application   programs  loaded  into  RAM  at various  times  during  the
computing session.
::#F~uIs the O/S (OPERATING  SYSTEM) the same as DOS (DISK OPERATING SYSTEM)? ~n
::@1 ~yYes. ~n
::\~gWell........no. ~r The O/S (OPERATING SYSTEM) and DOS (DISK
OPERATING SYSTEM)  both maintain and perform  similar  functions. ~n~g They are
not  the  same,  though.  The O/S resides in  ROM  memory  while  DOS  is
stored mainly on disk or other storage  peripherals.  The  computer  uses
(via  O/S) the DOS programs needed for  the proper  execution  of   other
programs.   Once   the  power  to  the computer  is turned  on,  the  O/S
loads  into RAM the  DOS  programs that   will  help  to   control   the
computer's    actions   through applications  programs.   This  is  known
as the  Booting  process. ~hThis capability cannot be built into DOS.  ~n
::@::*2 ~yNo. ~n
::\~g~hCongratulations, you are right.~n~g  This was a difficult question to
answer.  The O/S resides in ROM and one of its many responsibilities
is  to load and execute the ~r DOS ~n~g  programs  needed  for    running
the  computer.  DOS is then used to  run  application programs.  The  DOS
programs  are  usually stored on disk  where  the appropriate    programs
are executed for use by the computer on  an "as needed" basis.
::#G~u Instructions for the CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT) can be found in: ~n
::@1 ~yThe O/S (Operating SYSTEM). ~n
::\~gSorry,  you  have  only one-third of the answer.  ~hThe O/S acts as a
general manager, giving instructions to the CPU  to  supervise operations
including  APPLICATION  PROGRAMS.~n~g   Also,   DOS   is essential in sending
instructions  to  the CPU to support the O/S  and  numerous   APPLICATION
PROGRAMS. APPLICATION PROGRAMS interact with the CPU, using instructions
to  perform  various  functions assigned    by   the   application
program. The O/S, DOS and application programs all use instructions
to communicate with the CPU,  otherwise  the  computer would not be
able   to  run  a  word processor, or allow you to program the   computer
or even play  a ~r game.~n
::@2 ~yDOS. ~n
::\~gNope,  sorry. ~r First, ~n~g the O/S acts as a general manager,  giving
instructions  to  the  CPU to supervise  the  operations  of  the computer,
including application programs. ~r Second, ~n~g DOS is another essential source
of  instructions  for  the  CPU  to  supervise, retrieve, store or
rearrange information. ~r Third, ~n~g the application program  is another source of
instructions for the CPU.   If it were not for the O/S, DOS and
application  programs,  you would not be able to run a word  processor,
spreadsheet or your favorite game.
::@3 ~yApplication programs.  ~n
::\~gNo  lollipop  for this incorrect answer.  ~hAll three, the O/S, DOS and
application   programs   play a role in giving   instructions   to    the
CPU.~n~g   Otherwise, the computer would not be able  to  run your   favorite
game, a word processor or a programming  language program.
::@::*4 ~yAll  of the above.~n
::\~g~r Right you are! ~n~g All of the mentioned programs serve to send
instructions  to the CPU.  Without the O/S, DOS  or  application programs,
the computer would do nothing more than just sit  with its cursor blinking at
you.

::#::#8A ~uDo software and hardware need to be compatible? ~n
::#~g~h
                ██   ██
                ██   ██              ║
                ███████  ┌──╖ ╓──┐╓──╢ ║   ║ ┌──╖ ╓──┐ ╓──╖
                ██   ██  ╓──╢ ║   ║  ║ ║ │ ║ ╓──╢ ║    ╟──╜
                ██   ██  ╙──╜ ║   ╙──╜ ╙─┴─╜ ╙──╜ ║    ╙──┘

                ██████
                ██                ║
                ██████  ╓──╖ ╓──┐─╫──  ║   ║ ┌──╖ ╓──┐ ╓──╖
                    ██  ║  ║─╫──  ║    ║ │ ║ ╓──╢ ║    ╟──╜
                ██████  ╙──╜ ║    ╙──┘ ╙─┴─╜ ╙──╜ ║    ╙──┘

                ████████
                ██    ██
                ████████               ║
                ██ ██    ╓──╖ ║  ┌──╖ ─╫──  ▀ ╓──╖ ╓──╖ ╓──┐
                ██  ██   ╟──╜ ║  ╓──╢  ║    ║ ║  ║ ║  ║ ╙──╖
                ██   ██  ╙──┘ ╙─ ╙──╜  ╙──┘ ║ ╙──╜ ║  ║ └──╜

~p~g~h


                ╔═════════════════════════════════════╗
                ║ HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE RELATIONSHIPS ║
                ╚═════════════════════════════════════╝~n


               ~g~r A computer ~n~g can be thought of as   analo-
               gous to a factory.   The type of  equipment
               set  up  as  well as the overall number  of
               machines  and tools establishes what   will
               be   manufactured and how rapidly  the  end
               result will  be produced.   If the  factory
               has   furniture-making   devices    inside,
               the  factory  will  yield furniture.    The
               computer, too, is limited to producing only

               ~p~g

               what  it  can achieve by what it  possesses
               inside.  You cannot count on a computer  to
               exhibit  breath-taking colors if you do not
               have a color monitor.   If you only have  a
               small amount of ~hRAM,~n~g you cannot run a large
               program.    You    cannot  run  a   program
               designed  for  an APPLE computer on an  IBM
               computer. ~r Both hardware and software ~n~g must
               be  engineered  with the other in  mind  to
               achieve  smooth,  congruent  operations and
               quality, accurate and productive results. A
               computer  relies  on   both  hardware   and
               software in order to execute any operation.
               Without  either,  the computer is not  much
               more than a paperweight.

::@1 ~ySoftware compatibility could be improved by the hardware
 configuration~n
::\^^::~gSorry. In many cases, you might be able to improve your computer or
software program. All efforts to do so are ineffectual if the hardware
configuration of the computer is not sufficient to service the software.
For instance, if you revise a program to exhibit graphics, you must have
a graphics display card (hardware). If your computer only has ~r 128k RAM, ~n~g
and you need at least ~r 512k RAM, ~n~g then you will  not be able to use the
program.  If the program requires a hard drive, and you only have two
floppy drives, you will not be able to use that program until you upgrade
your computer to handle the program. The idea here is that both hardware
and software must be compatible with each other in order to function
appropriately. With new hi-tech advancements you may discover that you
may later ~r need more RAM ~n~g or a monitor with better resolution.
::@2 ~yHardware configuration could be improved.  ~n
::\~gYou  can improve your  computer's configuration by adding new   hardware
such as a mouse, a  scanner, ~r more  RAM, ~n~g  etc. There  are  many  factors
involved  in  selecting software  for  your computer.    If  the  program
requires  512k RAM and you  only  have 128k  RAM, you will have  to   add
more  memory in order to run  the program.  If the software indicates   a
color   monitor  is  essential and you have a  monochrome   monitor,  you
will  need   to upgrade  your  monitor and graphics card.    With    some
software,  speed is very desirable.  ~r To add speed ~n~g to your computer, you
may  have   to get a faster rated computer.  You cannot just add  a   new
piece  of hardware and expect it to work every time.  You have   to  make
sure    the  hardware  and software  were  designed  for each  other  and
for   your  particular computer configuration.
::@::*3 ~yThe system program must be compatibile with the CPU. ~n
::\~gCorrect!   You are very sharp!  System  program  compatibility with  the
CPU  is  the most essential compatibility criteria between  hardware  and
software.    All  programs,  system programs  as  well   as   application
programs, must be  ~r compatible with the CPU. ~n~g  Without
hardware/software compatibility, a computer will not run effectively
(or perhaps not at all).  Insufficient memory will not run a
program.   A program specifically written on an  IBM computer   will  not
run  on an Apple.  Making  sure  the software or hardware  is  compatible
with  your  computer before   you install  it  on your computer will save
you a lot  of   time  and grief later on.
::#B ~uA CPU can be best described as: ~n
::@1 ~yHardware that supervises and monitors the operations of the computer.~n
::\~gNot   quite right.  Yes, the ~r CPU ~n~g is definitely hardware, but it does
not   have  the  capability  to  monitor  or  supervise   the  operations
of   the  computer.  This  is  accomplished  with  the OPERATING  SYSTEM,
DOS  and SYSTEM SOFTWARE.  The operating system and the system   software
reside in ROM. DOS is located on  either a floppy diskette or on a   hard
drive.   You  may not even be  aware that  ~r DOS ~n~g  is  actually  being run
because  it is  running  in  the background.  A  small portion of  memory
is  set aside to  run  DOS operations while you run another program.   If
you  install   device drivers,  such as a mouse driver or  the   ANSI.SYS
device    driver,   each   adds  to the amount of  memory  used  in   the
background.
::@2 ~yHardware that combines the storing of software programs and the
 overall computer operation. ~n
::\~gNot  this time.  ~r A CPU is considered hardware ~n~g and does not store
software  anywhere. Throw this answer out the  window.    The   OPERATING
SYSTEM  is  stored in ROM,  where  interaction  with  various  pieces  of
hardware  is  accomplished.  ~r DOS ~n~g and  application programs  are loaded
into RAM where they are  used for various computer  operations and data
processing.   The  operating  system, DOS,   and   application   programs
all    send   instructions  to the CPU.   The  CPU  accepts and  executes
instructions like  a  robot.   All of  these (the  CPU,  DOS, application
programs,  operating system, plus any device drivers that  may  have been
installed) all ~hshare RAM~n~g in  your  computer.
::@::*3 ~yHardware that is responsible for accepting and executing
 instructions as directed by various programs. ~n
::\~gThis is the best answer.  The  ~r CPU ~n~g is hardware that is
responsible for executing each and every instruction given to  it by the
operating system, DOS and any application program you  may be running. You
might  like  to try the other answers in this  set for  a  more  detailed
explanation of how this is accomplished. You may have  ~r 640k of RAM ~n~g (that
is, 655,360 bytes of memory), but in  actuality  all the programs  stored
in   RAM, plus  the  memory required to run those  programs,   diminishes
the actual RAM you  have available for your use.
::#C ~uROM is essential in a computer because ~n
::@1 ~yIt  stores  and operates  application programs.  ~n
::\~gPerhaps  you should take a break and begin again later. You might have
the term RAM confused with ROM.  ~r ROM ~n~g is static (permanent)
memory  that will not be erased, even when the  power to the computer  is
off.   ROM  holds the operating system programs. The   operating   system
acts as  a  general  manager,  overseeing computer  operations.  Plus  it
is  instrumental  in  loading  the  DOS programs  when  the  computer  is
turned  on.  ~r DOS ~n~g is necessary to perform redundant tasks (such as
accepting  input  from  the  keyboard) that might otherwise  have  to  be
programmed  into the computer each time it is turned on by  the  computer
operator.
::@2 ~yIt stores the operating system and DOS programs that are
 essential to the operation and supervision of the computer.~n
::\~gYou  are way off base with this answer.  The operating system is  stored
in  ROM,  yes, but DOS is stored in the computer's RAM.    The  operating
system  acts  as a  manager,  overseeing  the  general operations  of the
computer.  ~r DOS ~n~g   helps  the  operating   system   by   directing  ~r I/O ~n~g
(INPUT/OUTPUT)  to  various devices, such  as  input from  the  keyboard.
Without  ~r DOS, ~n~g the computer operator would have to  type in  repetitious
instructions  such  as displaying characters on the monitor  or   sending
characters in the proper format to the printer.
::@::*3 ~yIt stores the operating system  that supervises the overall
 operation of the computer and initiates the retrieval of DOS
 programs when the electrical power is initially turned on.~n
::\~gAbsolutely  correct!  ~r ROM ~n~g is where you'll find  the  operating system.
ROM, along with RAM, is very important in  the  overall operation of  the
computer.  Without the programs resident (or stored) in ROM, the  computer
would not load ~r DOS ~n~g into RAM when the computer is turned  on.   This
makes it easy for a novice to use  a  computer without  having  to   know
everything  about   the  internal  devices installed  in  that  computer.
You  might think of it as driving  a car without having to know  what  is
involved in making the  engine run.
::#D ~uThe purpose of RAM is to ~n
::@1 ~yStore all programs and data for immediate access to the CPU on disks.~n
::\~gYou are only partially correct. ~r ROM ~n~g has the job of storing the
operating system programs, RAM doesn't.  ~r RAM ~n~g does  store  ~r DOS, ~n~g  application
programs  and  the data needed for various  programs, but   is    not   a
permanent storage for data or  a  primary  storage device for the operating
system.   ~hApplication~n~g programs are stored in RAM until  replaced  by
another application program or when  the computer  is turned off.  RAM is
considered   volatile   (erasable) memory hardware.   ROM  is  considered
static (permanent) memory.
::@2 ~yPermanently store data and the operating system programs. ~n
::\~gWhoa!   The  key word here is "permanently"!   ROM  permanently   stores
data and programs, not RAM.  ~r RAM ~n~g can be erased and is called
volatile (temporary) memory.  ~r ROM ~n~g is called static  (permanent)
memory.  The programs stored in RAM are erased  each time a new
application  program is loaded into memory  or  when power to the computer  is
turned off.
::@3 ~yPermanently preserve the operating system and DOS programs in its
 memory. ~n
::\~gWhoa!   The  key word here is "permanently"!   ROM  permanently   stores
data   and  programs, not  RAM.  ~r RAM ~n~g can be   erased   and   is  called
volatile  (temporary)  memory.   ~r ROM ~n~g  is  called    static  (permanent)
memory.  The programs stored in RAM are erased  each time  a  new
application program is loaded into memory or when power to the computer is
turned off.
::@::*4 ~yStore DOS and application programs for immediate access to/from
 the CPU. ~n
::\~g~hNot bad, you selected the correct answer.~n~g  ~r RAM ~n~g  is called volatile
(erasable)  memory,  while ~r ROM ~n~g  is static (permanent) memory.   ROM  is
primarily used to store  the  operating  system programs.   The
operating  system is used to  oversee  the  basic operations of  the  computer,
such as loading DOS when the computer is turned on.
::#E ~uThe computer's monitor (display) is ~n
::@1 ~yan INPUT device only.  ~n
::\~gDefinitely  not!   Think  carefully  about  this  answer.   The  monitor
can  only  RECEIVE  display  data  from  the   computer, therefore it can
only  be an output device.  When you press a  key on  the  keyboard,   it
is  sent (echoed) to the  monitor.   ~r The keyboard ~n~g  is an example of  an
input device.  It can only be  used to send information and characters to
the computer.  NOTE: don't let the operation of a light pen confuse  you.
The  light  pen has its own cable and merely reads  information  off  the
monitor screen - the monitor is still only an ~r OUTPUT ~n~g device.
::@::*2 ~yan OUTPUT device. ~n
::\~gYou  are  correct in choosing this answer.  The monitor  is  a  definite
example  of  an output device.  The computer display  can  only   receive
data,   such as characters and  graphics  from  the  computer.    Another
example of an output device is  the  printer. An input device would be  a
keyboard.   Nevertheless,  monitors display our input data as  well.   We
may say they simultaneously ~r OUTPUT our data ENTRIES. ~n
::@3 ~yboth an INPUT and OUTPUT device.  ~n
::\~gI'm   not  sure why you chose this answer, but a monitor  is   only   an
output device.  It can only receive data, such as a graphics drawing   or
characters.   When you press a key on  the  keyboard, the  character   is
displayed  (echoed) onto the  monitor.   ~r The monitor ~n~g is not capable  of
sending data to the computer.  NOTE:  don't let the operation of a  light
pen confuse you.  The light pen has its own cable and merely reads
information  off  the  monitor screen - the monitor is still  only  an  OUTPUT
device.

::#::#9A ~uWhat is a language? ~n
::#~g~h
             ██   ██                           ███████
             ██   ██                           ██   ██         ║
             ███████  ╥  ╥ ╓─┬─╖ ┌──╖ ╓──╖     ███████ ╓──╖ ╓──╢
             ██   ██  ║  ║ ║ │ ║ ╓──╢ ║  ║     ██   ██ ║  ║ ║  ║
             ██   ██  ╙──╜ ║   ║ ╙──╜ ║  ║     ██   ██ ║  ║ ╙──╜

                 ███████
                 ██
                 ██      ╓──╖ ╓─┬─╖ ╓──╖ ╥  ╥ ─╫── ╓──╖ ╓──┐
                 ██      ║  ║ ║ │ ║ ║  ║ ║  ║  ║   ╟──╜ ║
                 ███████ ╙──╜ ║   ║ ╟──╜ ╙──╜  ╙── ╙──┘ ║
                                    ║
             ██
             ██
             ██      ┌──╖ ╓──╖ ╓──╖ ╥  ╥ ┌──╖ ╓──╖ ╓───╖ ╓───┐
             ██      ╓──╢ ║  ║ ║  ║ ║  ║ ╓──╢ ║  ║ ╟───╜ ╙───╖
             ███████ ╙──╜ ║  ║ ╙──╢ ╙──╜ ╙──╜ ╙──╢ ╙───┘ └───╜
                                  ║              ║
                             ─────╜         ─────╜
~p~g~h

                    ╔══════════════════════════════╗
                    ║ HUMAN AND COMPUTER LANGUAGES ║
                    ╚══════════════════════════════╝~n


               ~gWe   prepared  this  lesson  to  ease  your
               fears of learning from computers.  Learning
               computer   programming   is   easy,    fast
               and  comprehensive.    With  Professor  3T,
               you can  ~r learn computer  programming ~n~g  in:
               Basic,  "C",  Pascal,  Cobol and  Assembly.
               Now go ahead and take the  test  below  and
               you'll   see   that  learning  by  computer
               is  not  as  difficult  as  you  might have
               imagined it being.

::@1 ~yA set of words and voice expressions. ~n
::\~gSorry.   Words and sounds are combinations of some signs  and   signals.
We  also use  them with devices.  The words that we use  have   different
definitions. The most frequently used ~r 500 words ~n~g in the ENGLISH LANGUAGE
have more than ~r 14,000 definitions. ~n~g These ambiguities  are a big problem
in  our  communications.  The word "language" has many  definitions.   We
have many languages.  We know also some animals have their own languages.
We know  bees communicate, but we don't fully understand how.    Hearing-impaired
 people have their own language(s).  Their language signals  are
mechanical   movements  of their hands and their fingers.   We  also  use
mechanical,  electrical and other signals in man-made products  and
systems.
::@2 ~yA means to understand each other  ~n
::\~gYour Genie again. ~r Signs ~n~g and ~r signals ~n~g are important characteristics of
languages.   There are means of communications and  understanding.   They
are  used for different purposes and not only for  understanding  between
two  human beings.  A symbol, a mark, a figure, an emblem, a  symptom,  a
motion,  a  gesture  ... are all signs.  ~r Signals ~n~g are used for  command,
warning,  guiding, pointing and so on.  Are these signs and signals  used
only for understanding between human beings?  We are also using signs and
signals  for communications between  devices.  Signs and signals are used
for commands and controls.  They are also used in traffic and industries.
Animals  also have their signs, signals and languages.
::@::*3 ~yNone of the above. ~n
::\~gYou  got the credit. A language consists of combinations of  signs   and
signals   to enable intelligent interaction between two entities.    This
is Professor 3T's definition as he told your friend, ~r Genie, ~n~g  the  other
day.   He  explained that human beings can communicate  with  each  other
through  their languages, since humans have intelligence.   Many  devices
have ~r limited intelligence. ~n~g  Some examples are technical control systems
and  computers.  "Language" is defined differently in  each  encyclopedia
and  dictionary.   If you have a better definition, let us  know.   Think
about that!
::#B ~uWhat are the common properties of languages? ~n
::@::*1 ~yTheir adaptability to their environment. ~n
::\~gBravo!    Did  you check the other answers, too?  If not, do   it.    We
also can learn from trial and error.  ~r Signs and signals ~n~g are part of the
properties  of  each language.  Their combinations build  the  language's
vocabularies.   Each  language must have rules  and  regulations.   These
rules  and  regulations help to define the structures of  the  languages.
This is good enough for Genie, even with Professor 3T's general statement
"The  property  of each language is its ~r adaptability ~n~g to the recipient's
characteristics."  Genie is getting impatient.  I think we should
challenge him if you have a better definition.  Let him know your idea by
writing to him, c/o Software Academy.
::@2 ~yThe combinations of their signs and signals. ~n
::\~gDon't  worry - even ~r your Genie ~n~g chose this wrong answer the first time.
You are half correct in considering signs and signals as a common properly
of all languages.  We use alphanumeric signs for communicating between
ourselves and for communicating with computers.  Electric  ~r signals ~n~g  are
used  in industrial processes.  There are devices with  limited
intelligence in industries.  Good examples of these devices are controllers  and
computers.  They also communicate with their languages.  The combinations
of signs and signals for these devices are adaptable to their
characteristics.
::@3 ~yThe vocabularies and rules.  ~n
::\~gHere's   Genie   again.  This is a better answer  than   another   wrong
answer.  You are correct; any language should have rules and regulations.
But are all the rules and regulations useful?
You  do  understand that the language vocabularies are the  same  as  the
combinations of ~r signs and signals? ~n~g Now we have vocabulary and rules. Do
languages have more properties?  The Professor 3T is still not satisfied.
Let's go to the other answer.  You had better check with answer number 1.
Don't  worry  - we can also learn from the responses given to  any  wrong
answers.
::#C ~uWhy do we need language(s) for computers? ~n
::@1 ~ySince they are not human. ~n
::\~gDid  you call your Genie again?  I acknowledge that humans have
languages. I know I don't deserve a ~r Nobel Prize ~n~g for this  acknowledgement.
Some   language-users  are  not human, such as  animals  and  intelligent
devices.    Some products also  need languages for their interactions.  A
heat  controller   receives  signals from a heat  sensor.   A  controller
processes this  information  and sends adjustment signals to the  heater.
The   controller  interacts  ~hintelligently~n~g with the  sensor's  and
heater's  systems.   Computers interact  and even ~r communicate ~n~g with  each
other.   The  answer  is wrong  since  there  are many   non-humans  that
cannot interact with  each other.   There is no  need for language if the
interaction  possibilities don't exist.

::@2 ~yTo instruct computers.~n
::\~gWe  have here another discussion with Professor 3T.  He says  the   need
for computer language(s) for instruction is a better answer.
Communication  consists of instructions and data transformations.   In
communication, we have instructions and data transformations, back and forth
between two intelligent sources.  We are in ~r a closed loop ~n~g  system.  We
also need signals and languages for instructions and data  transformation
in ~r an open loop ~n~g system (a system without two-way communication). Please
also  check  the responses to the other answers  for  more  communication
between your answers and those of Professor 3T.
::@::*3 ~yTo communicate with computers. ~n
::\~gPerfect  answer.  ~r We communicate ~n~g with each other, since we humans have
intelligence  (including  our Genie).  For communications,  we  need  two
intelligent sources.  For instruction, one intelligent source is  enough.
We  can instruct computers.  They go ahead and accomplish the job.   They
only  talk back if our instructions are not correct.  We also don't  talk
back (communicate) when we get a traffic ticket.  We follow the
instructions; pay or go to court.  We have also the option to go to ~hjail~n~g
"intelligently."  Now we will have another interesting discussion with
Professor 3T.  Try the other questions on his definitions of instruction and
communication.

::#D ~uWhy do computer languages look strange? ~n
::@1 ~yAny foreign language looks strange.  ~n
::\~gAny  foreign language looks strange?   ~hGenie~n~g has good news for you!  In
this question, all of  the  answers are  correct.  All foreign  languages
look strange.   Once we  learn  languages,  we get familiar and
comfortable  with them.  We use them  and  we are happy and proud to know  them.
If we compare computer languages with others,  ~r computer  languages ~n~g  are
easier  to learn than our own  ~hhuman  languages.~n~g   We should spend  some
time  to learn and practice  with  computer languages.   We   have   been
preparing  Professor  3T  tutorials  to  easily enable  people  to  learn
computer  languages as fast and as comfortable  as they can.  You can  help
us  with your comments.  Once you learn one of them, the more  you  study
languages the easier learning them will become.
::@2 ~yWe didn't learn them at an early age. ~n
::\~gNobody is born computer-literate.  Genie has good news for you!
In  this question, all of  the  answers are  correct.  All  foreign
languages  look strange.   Once we  learn  languages,  we get familiar  and
comfortable with them.  We use them  and  we are happy and proud to  know
them.  If we compare computer languages  with others,  computer languages
are  easier to learn than our own  ~r human  languages. ~n~g  We should  spend
some  time  to learn and practice  with  computer languages.    We   have
been  preparing  Professor 3T  tutorials  to  easily  enable   people  to
~hlearn computer languages~n~g as fast and as comfortable as they can.  You  can
help  us  with your comments.  Once you learn one of them, the  more  you
study languages the easier learning them will become.
::@::*3 ~yAll of the above. ~n
::\~gYes!   This is correct! Genie has good news for you! In  this  question,
all  of  the answers are correct.  All ~r foreign languages ~n~g look  strange.
Once  we  learn  languages,  we get familiar and  comfortable with  them.
We  use  them  and  we are happy and proud to know them.  If  we  compare
computer languages  with others,  computer languages are easier to  learn
than our own  human  languages.   We  should spend some time to learn and
practice  with  computer languages.   We  have  been preparing  Professor
3T   tutorials  to  easily enable  people to learn computer languages  as
fast and as comfortable as they can.  You can help us with your  comments.
Once  you  learn  one of them, the more you ~r study languages ~n~g the  easier
learning them will become.
::#E ~uWhy do we have so many computer languages? ~n
::@1 ~yWe need them.~n
::\~gSorry,  this is not quite true.  Only a fraction of the developed
computer languages are known to us.  Fortunately, many competent and
distinguished programmers have been developing ~r computer languages. ~n~g All of
them  cannot emerge at the front.  Some of them don't come to the  market
at all and others are phased out with time.
::@2 ~yThere are too many programmers and language developers. ~n
::\~gAccording  to  your Genie's opinion, this is not the best answer.  We
should  be,  and we are, very happy that we have many  computer  language
developers.  Consumers choose the proper one at the time.  The developers
compete  with each other and produce better ones.  That is  an  excellent
procedure.   The  users and the societies are taking advantage  of  these
procedures.  Many initiatives and innovations are based on this procedure
of  competition  between producers.  One of the excellent tools  of  this
process is the ~r free enterprise society. ~n
::@3 ~yThe lack of cooperation and coordination. ~n
::\~gNot  quite correct. Cooperation helps everyone.  Coordination is  needed
and  is also helpful.  Too much coordination could also  cause
restrictions and bureaucracies.  Don't forget the effect of needs on
initiatives, innovations and developments.  ~r Programming is an ART. ~n~g
Programmers are individuals.  They don't  like ordinations (orders) and they are
not very  comfortable  with coordinations.  ~hGenie. ~n
::@::*4 ~yAll of the above.  ~n
::\^^::~gExcellent. I think you chose the best answer in this ~hphilosophic
question.~n~g  The reasons that we have so many computer languages is that:
~r a) ~n~g We need different languages for various purposes.
~r b) ~n~g Fortunately, we have enough people who can design and develop
     computer languages.
~r c) ~n~g It is better to leave the language development in the hands of
     competitive individuals and entities than pushing extensive
     coordinations.
::#F ~uAre the computer languages getting easier with time? ~n
::@1 ~yNo, they are not.~n
::\~gOH, oh, oh.  Do  you  want to write your programs with machine language?
In  machine language, we have only the two signs ~h"0"~n~g and ~h"1".~n~g  The
combinations of a number of these signs build the instructions.  Or do you
prefer   assembly  languages?  We have different assembly  languages  for
each micro processor and each central processing unit (CPU).  By the way,
a host of micro  processors  are  used in industrial processors (we don't
hear  about these very often).  Stay with your ~r Genie. ~n~g
::@2 ~yYes, they are.~n
::\~gYou may get half of the credit.  Basic language is easier than  assembly
language.   A database-oriented language helps data base users  more than
Basic language.  The ~r "C" ~n~g language is not as easy as the basic language.
Many Basic programmers try to learn  the "C"  language with Professor 3T
tutorials.  Why? For some applications, producing programs with "C" is
less time  consuming and more efficient than with Basic.
::@::*3 ~yThey get more objective-oriented. ~n
::\~gPerfect.    You  made my day.  Programming languages are  getting   more
objective-oriented. That is the trend.  Programming languages are
getting   easier for  peoples'  specific purposes. ~r "C" ~n~g language is  the
fourth   language that we are using for Professor 3T tutorials.  Did  you
hear about ~r PROLOG? ~n~g  Some call it an artificial  intelligence  language.
PROLOG is an  efficient, objective-oriented language.  All of our
application programs and word processors are also objective-oriented
programs.   We write programs with the assistance of one or more other
programmers.  ~hGod bless programmers. ~n
::@4 ~yNone of the above.~n
::\~gYou may get half of the credit.  Basic language is easier than  assembly
language.   A database-oriented language helps data base users  more than
Basic language. The ~r "C" ~n~g language is not as easy as the Basic language.
Many  Basic  programmers  try to learn ~r "C" ~n~g language  with Professor  3T
tutorials. Why? For some applications, producing some programs with ~r "C" ~n~g
is less time  consuming and more efficient than with Basic.
::#G ~uCan we write all programs needed with just one language? ~n
::@1 ~yNo.~n
::\~gI had a serious discussion on this question with the Professor the other
day.  He says the answer is wrong  since  the  pioneer programmers   used
machine  and assembly languages for all their  programs.  Also  all
programs are converted to assembly and machine languages  to execute   their
instructions  by the hardware parts (microprocessors  and CPU's).
Compilers,  interpreters and operating system  programs  convert  all  other
programs to the ~r assembly and machine languages. ~n
::@2 ~yYes, but hardware and software companies should cooperate. ~n
::\~gSorry, the answer is not correct.  Hardware and software companies   are
cooperating  and  coordinating their efforts toward  the  development  of
industry-wide standards.  They try to provide their products for  varying
public applications.  Writing programs with subject-oriented languages is
easier,  less time consuming and more practical than to try to write  all
programs with a unique ~r universal language. ~n~g  These are reasons  that  we
will have more subject-oriented languages and programs with time.
::@::*3 ~yNone of the above. ~n
::\~gPerfect.   The correct answer is:  Yes, we can write all programs   with
just  one  language.  We use different languages since some of  them  are
better than the others for our purposes.  We are ~r optimizing ~n~g our resources
by  choosing the most adequate programming languages for our  programming
objectives.   Even in some projects, we may decide to employ ~hmore~n~g  than
one programming language.
::#H ~uWhat are the minimum requirements for a programming language? ~n
::@::*1 ~yThey should have vocabularies and disciplines. ~n
::\^^::~gThey  should have vocabularies and disciplines. Perfect.
I am proud of you.  Keep in mind:
~r a) ~n~g Vocabularies are combinations of signs and signals.
~r b) ~n~g Vocabularies are our codes and instructions to various parts of
     the entire computing system.
~r c) ~n~g We have been using different terms for our program codes. They
     are instructions, commands, operators. Flags, marks, structures,
     functions, identifiers, etc.

For each  program,  we also have rules and regulations or ~hdisciplines. ~n
::@2 ~yThey should have signs, signals, operators, structures and
 procedures.~n
::\~gYou  may get just 50% of the credit, but we use only  integer   numbers.
Vocabularies are combinations of ~r signs and signals ~n~g in all languages. In
computer  languages  we use just alphanumeric characters  and  the  other
signs  or symbols which you see on the keyboards.  We also build  signals
with combinations of the signs.  The vocabularies, or codes, in  computer
languages are subdivided to different terms.  These terms refer to  their
purposes.  The language developers employ some of these terms differently.
We  may want to try to unify these terms for all languages  in  the
future.  ~hGenie. ~n
::@3 ~yAll from Number 2, above, plus rules and regulations. ~n
::\~gIt is better than the other wrong answer.  We need discipline or   rules
and regulations for languages. ~r Vocabularies ~n~g consists of combinations of
signs  in  computer languages.  We have many signals in  our  programming
languages.  These signals are part of the vocabularies and are built with
combinations  of signs.  We assigned a number to each sign so  that   you
can   review these computer signs and their related numbers  in   ~r ASCII ~n~g
Code  tables.  The marriage of these signs and numbers remain valued  for
the rest of their lives.  That is good, isn't it?
::#I ~uCan we compare human and computer languages?~n
::@1 ~yHumans can communicate better.~n
::\~gI  agree  with  you to some extent.  Don't get impatient.   We  have   a
treasure of vocabularies and literatures.  We also have grammars.  Did we
design our languages based on the grammar or did we develop grammars  for
our  languages?  Do you recall all those "exceptions to the rule" in  our
grammar?   Don't  many simple words have many definitions?  Each  of  the
computer  words or terms have only one definition.  Also,  computer
language ~r words and rules ~n~g (grammars) are simultaneously developed.
::@2 ~yComputers can communicate better.~n
::\~gI think you are going too far if you believe computers can   communicate
better than we humans.  I agree computer words are not ambiguous like our
human  words.  Also computer language regulations have  more  disciplines
than  grammars  in our languages.  Don't forget that  we  humans  program
these dummies for our purposes.  They act like the slaves of the
programmers.   They  can not have any boundless,  far-reaching  and
far-ranging communications, but we do.  We even communicate ~r politically. ~n~g
::@::*3 ~yAll of the above.~n
::\~gNow I am relaxed, you chose the best answer.  Let's highlight each
party's communications strengths and weaknesses.  ~r Computer ~n~g words  and
descriptions  have  more  well-defined features than  do  human  languages.
Human language features  are  parts of our human treasures.  Human brains
process  and  use these treasures in communications.  There are
ambiguities and distortions in such  communications.  There are restrictions  in
computer ~hcommunications.~n~g Therefore each of them are relevant for some
kind  of   communication and ~r none ~n~g of them is adequate for all  kinds  of
communications.

::#::#10A ~uSome examples of high level languages are: ~n
::#~g~h
                 ███████
                 ██
                 ██      ╓──╖ ╓─┬─╖ ╓──╖ ╥  ╥ ─╫── ╓──╖ ╓──┐
                 ██      ║  ║ ║ │ ║ ║  ║ ║  ║  ║   ╟──╜ ║
                 ███████ ╙──╜ ║   ║ ╟──╜ ╙──╜  ╙── ╙──┘ ║
                                    ║
        ███████
        ██   ██
        ███████
        ██     ╓───┐╓──╖ ╓──╖ ╓───┐┌──╖ ╓─┬─╖ ╓─┬─╖ ▀ ╓──╖ ╓──╖
        ██     ║    ║  ║ ║  ║ ║    ╓──╢ ║ │ ║ ║ │ ║ ║ ║  ║ ║  ║
        ██     ║    ╙──╜ ╙──╢ ║    ╙──╜ ║   ║ ║   ║ ║ ║  ║ ╙──╢
                        ────╜                             ────╜
           ██
           ██
           ██      ┌──╖ ╓──╖ ╓──╖ ╥  ╥ ┌──╖ ╓──╖ ╓───╖ ╓───┐
           ██      ╓──╢ ║  ║ ║  ║ ║  ║ ╓──╢ ║  ║ ╟───╜ ╙───╖
           ███████ ╙──╜ ║  ║ ╙──╢ ╙──╜ ╙──╜ ╙──╢ ╙───┘ └───╜
                           ─────╜         ─────╜
~p~g~h


                        ╔═════════════════════╗
                        ║ I. BINARY LANGUAGES ║
                        ╚═════════════════════╝~n

               ~gIt    may   surprise you  to  learn    that
               most   computers  usually work   with  more
               than one language.     For instance,    all
               computers  must   use  a  binary  form   of
               language  called ~hMACHINE  LANGUAGE.~n~g    That
               is,    a   language which  uses   only  two
               characters.   In  the computer,  it  is   a
               magnetic  charge  ~r (+), ~n~g   or  no  magnetic
               charge ~r (-), ~n~g  or it  also  can simply   be
               an  "on"   and  "off"  electrical  current.
               ~p






               ~gMACHINE   LANGUAGE  is    usually   written
               as a   ~r "1" ~n~g  or   a   ~r "0" ~n~g   representing
               a  "charged" or "non charged"  magnetic  or
               electrical  pulse respectively.  Therefore,
               machine language is very tedious, difficult
               to  learn  and subject to many  errors  and
               difficulty in locating errors.




~p~g~h


              ╔════════════════════════════════════════════╗
              ║ II. HIGHER LANGUAGES VS. MACHINE LANGUAGES ║
              ╚════════════════════════════════════════════╝~n

               ~gThe    beauty of higher  languages,    such
               as  PASCAL  and   others,  is   the   large
               additional sets of instructions written  in
               to   take  care   of   all   the    mundane
               detailed    ~r MACHINE   LANGUAGE ~n~g   for  the
               programmer.   This is an  example of a very
               large   step   designed  to  make  program-
               ming  easier,     more  pleasant  and  very
               useful  with  a minimum  of your  time.


~p






               ~gIt  must  be  remembered  that  a  computer
               cannot  think  for  itself.   But  it  will
               faithfully follow every instruction   which
               is  correctly  written and entered  by  the
               programmer.  ~hNow  let's  learn more   about
               computer languages in the test session.~n




::@1 ~yAssembly Language.~n
::\~gOOPS!!     You  goofed!  ~r PASCAL,  BASIC,  COBOL ~n~g are  all  HIGH LEVEL
LANGUAGE  programs written to help programmers to construct a set of
instructions for the computer.   These instructions that are written in
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES  will  be  translated  into MACHINE  LANGUAGE  by  a
compiler  so the computer will be able  to understand and carry  out  the
instructions.   The  computer can only read and perform in  ~hMACHINE
LANGUAGE. ~n
::@2 ~yMachine Language. ~n
::\~gSorry! You struck out!! ~r MACHINE LANGUAGE ~n~g is not a high level
language but a binary form of language.   However,  since I am a
computer,  this is the only language I can understand and use to process
problems and information for you.  As a computer, I have not yet been
technically   developed  to  read  symbols.  Therefore,  I only have  the
ability to sense electrical pulses or magnetic charges and decipher  them
into meaningful ~hprograms. ~n
::@::*3 ~yPascal.~n
::\~gRight on, Partner!  ~r PASCAL ~n~g is correct!  The only language  I, as a
computer,   can understand is MACHINE LANGUAGE.  Unlike you, I   do   not
have  complex thought processes.   I can only  understand binary at  this
time, ie: a series of magnetic or non-magnetic charges.   However,  since
you  have trouble reading my language,  you use symbols (characters  with
letters  and numbers) that are formed to make it easier for you to   read
and  write  programs.    These symbols help you detect  and  correct  any
errors  you may make.   When such numbers and alphabet characters in  the
form  of words are used, it is called a ~hHIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE. ~n
::#B ~uThe only language the computer understands and operates with is: ~n
::@1 ~yBASIC.~n
::\~gYou   get  30 lashes with a wet noodle! ~r BASIC ~n~g is one of the many
high  level  languages written to help programmers construct  a  set   of
instructions  for  the computer to  perform.   Instructions  written   in
BASIC   are  translated into MACHINE  LANGUAGE  by  a compiler  for   the
computer  to  understand   and  carry  out.   The  computer    can   only
sense  and perform  in MACHINE  LANGUAGE.  Remember,  ~r MACHINE  LANGUAGE ~n~g
is  a binary form of  language  using electrical or magnetic on  and  off
pulses.
::@::*2 ~yMACHINE LANGUAGE.~n
::\~gCorrect!!     You  earned another ego trip.  All  computers,   at   this
time,   can   only  sense and perform  in   MACHINE   LANGUAGE.   MACHINE
LANGUAGE  is a binary language which means two parts or a set   of   two.
Computers can only sense and work  with  magnetic impulses or  electrical
charges.   That is,  an electrical  charge (1)  or  no  electrical charge
(0).   This code, known  as ~r MACHINE LANGUAGE, ~n~g is in binary  form  using
electrical or  magnetic on and off pulses.
::@3 ~yPASCAL.~n
::\~gWhoa,  human!!   Let's back up.  Computers can only  understand  MACHINE
LANGUAGE.  ~r Data ~n~g  must be in the form of on and off magnetic or
electrical   charges  which have meaning  to  a computer.     Hence,    a
binary  or low level language.   Writing and correcting in  MACHINE
LANGUAGE  is  very difficult for humans.  So, high  level   languages  using
letters and symbols were  developed.  Humans  now write in languages they
can easily understand  and  a ~r COMPILER  (translator) ~n~g converts  the
instructions  into a  language the computer can understand  and  manipulate
for desired results.
::#C ~uWriting a MACHINE LANGUAGE program can be very tedious and
 difficult to learn. ~n
::@::*1 ~yTrue.~n
::\~gYou  are  absolutely correct!  MACHINE LANGUAGE  has  only  two
characters,   a  one (1) and a zero (0).  A simple common word  such  as  "yes"
written in MACHINE LANGUAGE would be ~r 00011001 00000101 00010011 ~n~g for  Y,
E and S in capital letters according to  accepted Tables  of ASCII Codes.
Memorizing the ASCII Codes is  not,  in itself,  difficult  but  learning
to read and write accurately in groups of eight is very difficult.
::@2 ~yFalse. ~n
::\~gBe  careful!  You are showing a high level  of  overconfidence.
Writing  and reading MACHINE LANGUAGE is tedious and difficult to learn.   If
I   wrote the word ~h"computer"~n~g in the English Language, it  is   easy   to
read and recognize.   This same word  written  in MACHINE  LANGUAGE would
be   ~h01000011 01001111 01001101  01010000 01010101   01010100   010000101
01010010.~n~g   Only two characters  are required and this is why it is  also
called a binary language.
::#D ~uUsing MACHINE LANGUAGE can lead you to  make many errors when  writing
 a program or a set of instructions.~n
::@::*1 ~yTrue.~n
::\~gRight  on, ~hHuman!!~n~g  You are correct!  Imagine a document that is 65
columns   wide and 64 lines long on a sheet 8.5 inches wide by  11 inches
long  with  only ones and zeros in  groups of eight  separated   only  by
spaces.    Even   the  period would have to be   written   as   00101010.
Once you have observed  a  document written in  ~r MACHINE  LANGUAGE, ~n~g  you
cannot help but agree.
::@2 ~yFalse.~n
::\~gSorry!!     You  apparently  never have seen or tried to   write    in
MACHINE   LANGUAGE.     An  8.5 by 11 inch   page   document   completely
filled   with  ones  and  zeros  in  groups  of  eight separated  only by
a space each is not only difficult to read  but exceptionally   difficult
to  locate  and  correct errors.   Converting one full page  of   MACHINE
LANGUAGE that  is ~r 80 ~n~g columns wide and ~r 65 ~n~g  rows long (amounting to
5,200  characters  and  spaces)  can easily  be  reduced to a  page
containing  approximately  eight  or nine  rows  (with each  row  containing
80  columns)   expressing precisely the identical words in  the   ~hEnglish
alphabet.~n
::#E ~uWriting a MACHINE LANGUAGE program for one brand of computers can
 be transferred to another brand of computers. ~n
::@1 ~yTrue.~n
::\~gOh, dear! ~r To  err ~n~g is human - and you are human!   You cannot
expect to   write  a  MACHINE LANGUAGE  program  for  an   Apple  computer
and expect  it to run on an  IBM,  Atari,  Commodore  or other.  The  MACHINE
LANGUAGE program must be written to meet  the design  or architecture  of
that particular computer.   Even in industry, when they purchase a  newer
or larger IBM, they must frequently buy ~r new software ~n~g  programs or have
their  old  ones  rewritten  to  be compatible with the new system.
::@::*2 ~yFalse.~n
::\~gYou are doing very well.  This is the right  answer.  MACHINE LANGUAGE
must  be  written in a manner to conform  with  the   wiring  and
structural   design   of the  computer.   ~r A  MACHINE  LANGUAGE ~n~g  program
written  for an IBM will not work on an Apple or an  Atari or  even on  a
different  and larger model of an IBM.  However,   a  higher     language
program   such   as   PASCAL  can   be   written  identically   for   any
computer.    But even PASCAL must  have  its language   translated  to  a
MACHINE  LANGUAGE   that   meets   the computer's design for  proper  and
~haccurate operations. ~n
::#F ~uA compiler is: ~n
::@1 ~yA higher language program.~n
::\~gNice try!  But you are not on the right path.  ~r A COMPILER ~n~g is  a highly
specialized program that reads the high  level   language stored  in RAM,
translates  the  instructions  to MACHINE  LANGUAGE  and   adds  specific
subroutines  to give continuity of instructions to  the  computer.    The
computers can only read and carry  out ~r instructions ~n~g in MACHINE LANGUAGE
and nothing else.
::@2 ~yAn extra set of instructions for the programmer.~n
::\~gWell, no ego trip this time.  ~r A COMPILER ~n~g does not teach a  programmer.
It  is  a TRANSLATOR that reads specific high level  languages,  such  as
PASCAL,  COBOL or others, and translates them into a   MACHINE   LANGUAGE
the  computer  will understand.   In addition to the ~r translation, ~n~g   the
compiler  will  add subroutines  to  assure  continuity  of  instructions
needed to carry out the intended program.
::@::*3 ~yA translator with built-in instructions to convert high level
 language to machine language for the computer. ~n
::\~gYou  are   absolutely  correct!!   ~r A COMPILER ~n~g  is a highly
specialized   program  that  reads the high level language  stored  in  RAM,
translates   the  instructions to MACHINE LANGUAGE   and   adds  specific
subroutines to give continuity of ~r instructions ~n~g to the computer.  As you
know,  the computers can only read and carry out instructions in  MACHINE
LANGUAGE and nothing else.
::#G ~uA computer will understand and carry out instructions:~n
::@1 ~yWritten in PASCAL or other high level languages. ~n
::\~gWHOOPS!  This was a trick question.  You have the brush  ~r (PASCAL) ~n~g  and
the  canvas (the computer),  but  you  cannot  have beautiful   portraits
without   the paint (a compiler)  which  will  translate what you see  in
your  mind  onto  the  canvas.   A computer can   only  deal    with  the
presence  or  absence  of  an   electrical  charge, not   symbols.    So,
these  ~h"words"~n~g  and  ~h"typographical symbols"~n~g must  be converted to
electrical or magnetic  pulses  a  computer can understand and manipulate.
::@::*2 ~yWhen the properly written instructions are compiled into
 MACHINE LANGUAGE. ~n
::\~gRight on! You are absolutely correct. High level languages  such
as ~r PASCAL ~n~g and others are designed  to   make  programming
easier,   quicker  and  universal  so  the operator  can  use   the  same
instructions to any computer.  But.. it is the ~r COMPILER ~n~g that takes this
"easy to use" language and translates the instructions to  the   specific
type  of MACHINE LANGUAGE  the  computer  ~hwill understand~n~g and carry out.
::@3 ~yWhen the program instructions are correctly written. ~n
::\~gSorry!    Your  response is like having the door but  no   house.    You
are  right to say the instructions must be correctly written.  The
computer  is like a robot, not knowing what to do  unless  the  instructions
are clear and in correct order.   Otherwise, it will stop.   High   level
languages  are used to make it easier for  the operator to read and
correct. ~r The COMPILER translates ~n~g high level language into MACHINE
LANGUAGE for the COMPUTER to understand and carry out.

::#::#11A~u Which kind of switches do we use in computers? ~n
::#~g~h
        ████████                                        ████████
        ██       ╓──╖ ╓─┬─╖ ╓──╖ ╥  ╥ ─╫── ╓──╖ ╓──┐    ██    ██ ╓───┐
        ██       ║  ║ ║ │ ║ ║  ║ ║  ║  ║   ╟──╜ ║       ██    ██ ║
        ████████ ╙──╜ ║   ║ ╟──╜ ╙──╜  ╙── ╙──┘ ║       ████████ ║
                            ║
              █████████
              ██                           ║
              █████████ ╥   ╥ ▀ ─╫──  ╓─── ╟──╖ ▀ ╓───╖ ╓───╖
                     ██ ║ │ ║ ║  ║    ║    ║  ║ ║ ║   ║ ║   ║
              █████████ ╙─┴─╜ ║  ╙──┘ ╙─── ║  ║ ║ ║   ║ ╙───╢
                                                       ─────╜
                  █████████                                   ▀▀▀▀▀▀█
                  ██  █  ██           ║                             █
                  ██     ██ ┌──╖ ╓─── ╟───╖ ▀ ╓───╖ ╓───╖       █▀▀▀▀
                  ██     ██ ╓──╢ ║    ║   ║ ║ ║   ║ ╟───╜       █
                  ██     ██ ╙──╜ ╙─── ║   ║ ║ ║   ║ ╙───┘       ▀
                                                                ▀

~p~g~h

               ╔═════════════════════════════════════════╗
               ║ IS IT A COMPUTER OR A SWITCHING MACHINE ║
               ╚═════════════════════════════════════════╝~n

               ~gWe  have  hundreds of thousands of switches
               in  each  computer.   Each  switch has only
               two  positions.    These two positions  are
               quite different  from each other.   We  can
               designate  these positions as:   Closed  or
               Open, ~r On ~n~g or ~r Off,~n~g High or Low, Yes or No,
               True  or False,  Equal or Unequal, Positive
               or   Negative,   North or  South,  Load  or
               Unload,    Less   or  More,   and  so   on.
               Scientists have decided to designate  these
               two positions as ~r "1" ~n~g and ~r "0" ~n~g. Now let's
               shake our intelligence and see what we  can
               do with these switches.

::@1 ~yRelays, vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes (CRT's). ~n
::\~gDecades ago, scientists tried to make computers with ~r relays ~n~g and vacuum
tubes.   Relays are too slow and not reliable enough; they use  too  much
electricity  and space.  Vacuum tubes were used mostly in old radios  and
televisions.  A  few computers made with vacuum  tubes  needed  extensive
cooling  systems.   They also needed a large amount of space, such  as  a
lecture  room.  Vacuum tubes have a short lifetime compared  to
transistors.   As  an example, computers with  16,000 ~r vacuum tubes ~n~g failed after
about  half  an hour of operation.  They then needed  hours  of
trouble-shooting and repair before they were again ready for use.
::@::*2 ~yTransistors, diodes, chips. ~n
::\~gExcellent.   After the invention of transistors, we started to   produce
useful computers.  We need hundreds of thousands of switches for even the
smallest computers today.  These switches must be very fast, very  small,
use very little electricity and have an operation life of several  years.
Transistors,  semiconductors, diodes and chips (or microchips) have   all
these advantages.  The microchips contain up to several hundred  thousand
transistors and diodes.  They do much better jobs than the discrete
transistors and diodes in the computers. A cathode ray tube ~r (CRT) ~n~g is not  a
switch.  ~hRelays and vacuum tubes~n~g have short operation lives. Also, relays
operate very slowly.
::@3 ~yAll of the above.  ~n
::\~g~r Decades ago, ~n~g scientists tried to make computers with relays and vacuum
tubes.   Relays are too slow and not reliable enough; they use  too  much
electricity  and space.  Vacuum tubes were used mostly in old radios  and
televisions.   A  few computers made with vacuum tubes  needed  extensive
cooling  systems.   Also they needed a large amount of space, such  as  a
lecture  room.  Vacuum tubes have a short lifetime compared  to
transistors.   As an example, computers with 16,000 ~r vacuum tubes ~n~g  failed after
half  an hour of operation.  They then needed hours  of  trouble-shooting
and repair before they were again ready for use.
::#B ~uWhy do we use microchips, transistors and diodes in computers? ~n
::@1 ~yThey are inexpensive.  ~n
::\~gTransistors are inexpensive.  ~r Microchips ~n~g are even less expensive,
since they contain up to several hundred thousand transistors.  The price
of microchips has been steadily dropping.   Computers do several  million
switching operations every second.  Therefore, the issue is the
capability of the ~hswitching components,~n~g not the price of the components.
::@2 ~yThey are fast and have a long operation life. ~n
::\~gThis  is a better answer than answer No. 1.  Computers do ~hseveral~n~g
million ~r switching operations ~n~g every second.  The switches must be  extremely
fast   and  have a long life.  Transistors and microchips  use  extremely
little    energy   and space.   We couldn't put   computers   into    our
pockets  or onto our laps if they needed as much ~r energy and space ~n~g as do
relays and vacuum tubes.
::@::*3 ~yMore than the above.  ~n
::\~gExcellent!  I'm proud of you. Computers do ~r several  million  switching ~n~g
operations  every second. Therefore, the issue is the capability  of  the
switching  components,  which must be extremely fast and have  very  long
lives.   The extremely low energy consumption and cost of microchips  are
very important.  We can put some computers in our pockets.  We also  have
portable (lap top) computers.  We would consume much more electric  power
and  space in a computer with ~hseveral hundred thousand~n~g relays and  vacuum
tubes.
::#C ~uComputers can operate  very  fast due to: ~n
::@1 ~yThe transistors and microchips.  ~n
::\~gSorry,  we have other components and equipment involved   in   computing
systems.  Keep going.  You can also learn from the responses given to any
~r wrong answers. ~n~g
::@2 ~yMicrochips, magnetic memories and programs. ~n
::\~gThat is better.  We agree with you that ~r memories ~n~g and programs have  to
be fast.  Random Access Memory must receive and send data very fast.   In
~r early computers, ~n~g we used magnetic memories for ~hRAM.~n~g  They were magnetic
rings  with  four wires mashed through all of them.  Magnetic  RAMs  were
very  expensive and they were large in size.  Now we  have  semiconductor
memory units.  They operate like ~htransistors and diodes. ~n
::@3 ~yAll of the above.  ~n
::\~gNot  quite correct.  For the same operation, we can have programs   with
different speeds. ~r Programming is an art. ~N~g  One of the objectives of
programmers  is higher speeds. Random Access Memory receives and sends  data
very fast.  In early computers, we used magnetic memories for RAM.   They
were magnetic rings with four wires mashed through all of them.  Magnetic
RAMs were very expensive and they were large in size.  Now we have
semiconductor memory units.  They operate like ~htransistors and diodes. ~n
::@::*4 ~yAll of the above, plus disk drives. ~n
::\~gPerfect.   Programs for the same purpose can  have   different   speeds.
~r Skilled   programmers ~n~g can develop faster programs.  We can also develop
faster  programs with some programming languages.   We have  fast  memory
chips made with semiconductors.  Magnetic memories are slow.  We now have
microchips,  which have fast semiconductor memories.  They  operate  like
transistors and diodes.  The floppy and hard disk drive ~r speeds ~N~g are also
important.
::#D ~uWhy do we use switches with just two states?~n
::@1 ~yOur electric power in the computer  has  two states.  ~n
::\~gThe  two positions of our electric power represent ~r two ~n~g states. A
transistor output voltage can be high or low. This depends on the  transistor
position.   Matching of the state of the electricity and the position  of
the transistors is very important.  We can translate a transistor
variable as  ~hhigh~n~G or ~hlow~n~g voltage. That means that we can transfer data inside
the  computers with electric lines.  I'm happy for your attention to  the
electric power inside computers.  I'm sorry, your answer is not the  best
one.  Try another answer.
::@2 ~YTransistors  have two  states.~n
::\~gSorry.  What can transistors do without electric power? The direct
current ~r (DC) ~n~g inside the computer has ~htwo~n~g positions: a high and a low
voltage.    We  have the same high and low voltages in the output and   input
of transistors. When an input value ~r (1 or 0) ~N~g changes, the  output value
will change, too.  We can translate a transistor variable as  either ~hhigh~n~g
or  ~hlow~n~g  voltage.  This variable can change the positions  of  the  other
transistors.
::@::*3 ~yAll of the above.  ~n
::\~gExcellent.  Are you trying for a degree in electronic engineering?   The
direct current ~h(DC)~n~g inside the computer has ~htwo~n~g positions:  a high and a
low voltage.  We have the same high and low voltages in the output and in
the  input of transistors. When an input value ~r (1 or  0) ~n~g  changes,  the
output value will change, too.  We can translate a transistor variable as
either ~hhigh~n~g  or ~hlow~n~g voltage.  This variable or data can change the
positions   of  the   other transistors. This is the  way  we  transfer   and
manipulate data ~h(1 and 0)~n~g in the computer machinery.
::@4 ~yNone of the above.  ~n
::\~gSorry  for this electronic engineering question. What you need  to  know
is:   the machine language  inside  the computer has just two variables
~h(1 and 0).~N~G  A jungle full of 1's and 0's.   A difficult, tedious language
of  switches.   In  the  jungle  called microchips,  all  the  electronic
switches are very honest with each  other.  They don't lie to each  other
with  their limited vocabulary of ~r two ~n~g words.  They listen to their
master, the programmer, and  work  precisely  and tirelessly.
::#E ~uCan we represent all this data with just two variables? ~n
::@1 ~YNo! Numbers and characters need more than two variables. ~n
::\~gSorry.  You are used to the  ~r decimal system ~n~g with ten signs (0, 1,
2,  3,  4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).  For all values greater than 9, we use  two  or
more  signs  (digits).  We  use two signs for numbers between 10  and  99
(10, 11, 12, .......... 97, 98, 99).  The value of a sign depends on  its
location. In the number 99, the 9 on the left is equal to 90.  (90 + 9) =
99.   Each sign to the left is multiplied by the next power of  10.   Ten
(10) is the base in the decimal system.  In the ~hbinary, octal, and
hexadecimal~n~g systems, the bases are 2, 8, and 16, respectively.
::@::*2 ~yWe use the binary system of numbers.  ~n
::\~gThank  you, that is the best answer.  We can represent any number as   a
decimal, binary, octal or hexadecimal number.  The ~hBASES~N~g of these  number
systems are different.  The BASE of the numbering system is equal to  the
number  of  signs in that particular numbering system.   In  the  decimal
system, we have 10 signs.  In the binary system, we have only two  signs.
Do  you remember that our switches  (transistors)  in the  computer  have
only two variables with the two  signs  of ~h"1" and "0"?~n~g  A binary  number
has more digits than a decimal number.   As an example, the number "9" in
decimal  is represented as "1001" in binary.  For 9, we need 4 digits  in
binary.
::@3 ~yWe use binary to decimal  conversions.  ~n
::\~gWe  can convert decimal numbers to ~r binary numbers ~n~g and vice  versa.  We
can  enter  decimal  numbers from the keyboard.  These  numbers  will  be
converted  to  binary numbers before any other processing is  done.   The
computer processes the numbers in binary.  The results will be ~r converted ~n~g
to  decimal  numbers.  Then the results will be presented to  us  on  the
screen of the monitor or on paper with the help of a printer.  Please try
another answer.
::@4 ~yNone of the above.  ~n
::\~gSorry.  You are used  to the  ~r decimal system ~N~g  with  ten signs (0, 1,
2,  3,  4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).  For all values greater than 9 we use  two  or
more  signs.   We  use two signs for numbers between 10 and 99  (10,  11,
12, .......... 97, 98, 99).  The value of a sign depends on its location.
In  the number 99, the 9 on the left is equal to 90.  90 + 9 = 99.   Each
sign to the left is multiplied by the next power of 10.  Ten (10) is  the
base  in the decimal system.  In the binary, octal and hexadecimal
systems, the bases are 2, 8, and 16, respectively. Please also keep in  mind
that decimal and binary numbers can each be converted to the other.
::#F ~uCan we represent alphanumeric characters with two signs? ~n
::@1 ~yNo.  ~n
::\~gI guess you are checking our response to a wrong answer.    Do   that
often.  Professor 3T gets happier and all responses are useful.  Don't we
know  that we can represent all numbers with two signs ~h(0 and 1)~n~g in the
binary system?  We can also represent characters with the same two signs.
For  this purpose we assign a code (a number) to each character.
Everybody  who writes a program should know and use the same codes or
assignments.   This  job  has been done.  We have a  universal  assignment for
characters;  it  is called ASCII.  ~r ASCII stands for: ~n~g  American Standard
Codes for International Information.
::@::*2 ~yYes.~n
::\^^::~gExcellent.  We have a universal assignment of numbers  for   characters.
It is called ASCII.  Below are some examples:

                              ~r T A B L E ~n~g

~hCODE    CHARACTER          CODE     CHARACTER          CODE     CHARACTER~n~g
 49         1               50          2               51         3
 52         4               53          5               54         6
 55         7               56          8               57         9
 65         A               66          B               67         C

::@3 ~yNone of the above.  ~n
::\~gI   guess  you are checking our response to a wrong answer.    Do   that
often.  Professor 3T gets happier and all responses are useful.  Don't we
know that we can represent all numbers with ~r two signs ~n~g (0 and 1) in the
binary system?  We can also represent characters with the same two signs.
For  this purpose we assign a code (a number) to each character.
Everybody  who writes a program should know and use the same codes or
assignments.   This  job  has been done.  We have a  universal  assignment for
characters;  it is called ASCII.  ~r ASCII ~n~G stands  for:  American Standard
Codes for International Information.
::#G ~uWhat happens when the switches change their positions?~n
::@1 ~YWe lose our data~n
::\~gYou're partly  correct. We lose all the data in ~r RAM ~n~g  every time we
switch  the  computer off.  Switch positions also change  every  time  we
ERASE or ~r DELETE ~n~g a set of data (e.g. a file) by a command. Switches also
change positions every time we put data into memory or we read data  from
memory.
::@2 ~yWe store our data  in memories.  ~n
::\~gAgain  you are partly correct.  ~r A group of switches ~N~g  changes positions
every  time  we  store data in memories. Storing data  into  memories  is
called  WRITING into memories.  Switches change positions every  time  we
READ a set of data from memories.  Please keep in mind that switches also
change  positions  every time data transfers between  memories.   As  you
may  have noticed, we generally use the term ~r "MEMORY" ~n~g for RAM, ROM  and
DISKS.    They  all  store data.  We WRITE data to all of them  and  READ
data  from all  of them.   Floppy  and  Hard disks are  generally  called
STORAGE,  since  we mainly use them as ~hstorage. ~n
::@3 ~yOur data will be transferred to the other switches.  ~n
::\~gIt is good that you know that ~r switches ~n~g change  positions  when  data
transfers  between  various  parts inside the computer  and  between  the
computer's Input/Output ports and its peripherals.  As a matter of  fact,
all  actions  in  the computer are initiated by  repeated  signals.   The
number  of the clock pulses (the clock frequency) is several million  per
second.  With higher clock frequencies, we have faster computers.  We can
blame  the clock pulses for all these computer price increases,  not  the
oil embargo.  Similarly we can blame ~hpolitics~n~g (software ~h=~n~g plan ~h+~n~g detailed
programs)  for the oil price increases, not the oil embargo.  An  embargo
is  just  a  factor in the program.  Now try to  see  what  the  programs
(politics) do to the switches in the computers.
::@::*4 ~yNone of the above.  ~n
::\~gPerfect. Everything happens by ~r instructions or programs ~N~g in the
computer.  Actions proceed in steps.  These steps are position changes of some
switches.   These steps are changes between "1" and "0" for machine
language  programs.  Some programs need millions or billions  of  steps  for
their  actions.  We need a signal to initiate each step.   These  signals
must be repeated after  each step to initiate the next step.  The
repetition of these signals or their frequencies must be very high.  We need a
signal   generator   with very high frequencies.   We have such  a   high
frequency signal generator - it is called a clock.  ~h The periods of
pulse ~N~g must be exactly the same.   All our switches must dance
extremely fast in a fraction  of a microsecond.
::#H~u Which groups of switches in your computer operate first after you
 switch on the power? ~n
::@1 ~yThe keyboard switches. ~n
::\~gSorry.  Your computer must be ready first for your keyboard entries.
We need not mention that your keyboard device consists mainly of switches.
What do you enter with the keys on your keyboard;  ~r ASCII ~N~g
characters  or ~h"0"~n~g and ~h"1"?~n~g  You already guessed that these
characters must be translated into the binary numbers ("0" and "1") while
using sets of transistors as switches.  You are partly correct.  Microchips
do the job these days.   Microchips contain many transistors.  Microchips are
made for various  functions. They follow instructions  ~h faster, ~N~g while
using  ~hless~N~g electricity and space.  They are less expensive, too.  That
is why we have all these lovely BABY COMPUTERS.
::@2 ~yAny input device switches, not just the keyboard switches. ~N
::\~gSorry. ~R First ~N~g we have to load computers.  Loading with what?
Loading with data of course, not with drinks or food.  A set of this data is
very important once called to the operating system program.  We have several
operating  systems programs.  Each CPU (Central Processing Unit) needs
its own operating system program.  CPU's are microchips.   Each microchip
has a very large number of switches.  The number is currently up to
several hundred thousand.  Once ~Ha new CPU~N~g is developed, software
producers jump and make new operating system programs.  They copy from older
programs, too.  They use the ~r COPY ~n~g commands.
::@::*3 ~yNone of the above.~n
::\~gPerfect.  After switching on the power, the first program is initiated
by the ~r ROM. ~n~g  That is the reason we need a prepared, available program
in  our computers.  This program is in the computer always, no matter if
we are using the computer or  are sitting at the table  without  electric
power or whether it is covered with dust.  We can't and we shouldn't
erase this program.  We even cannot WRITE any  additional instructions
into this program. That is why it is called Read Only  Memory. ~hROM~n~G
starts acting and PULLS the Operating System Program.  Then you can input
data for any further actions.  ~hROM~n~g consists of a set of switches with
fixed positions. Please review responses to the other answers.
Professor 3T put some good stuff in them for you.

::#::#12A~u Do all our number signs have the same values? ~n
::#~g~h

                  ██████████
                  ██      ██             ║
                  ██      ██  ╥  ╥ ╓─┬─╖ ╟──╖ ╓──╖ ╓──┐
                  ██      ██  ║  ║ ║ │ ║ ║  ║ ╟──╜ ║
                  ██      ██  ╙──╜ ║   ║ ╙──╜ ╙──┘ ║



             █████████
             ██                            ║
             ██         ╓──┐ ╥  ╥ ╓──╖ ╓── ╟──╖ ▀ ╓──╖ ╓───╖
             ██         ║    ║  ║ ║  ║ ║   ║  ║ ║ ║  ║ ║   ║
             █████████  ║    ╙──╜ ║  ║ ╙── ║  ║ ║ ║  ║ ╙───╢
                                                      ─────╜

~p~g~h

                          ╔══════════════════╗
                          ║ NUMBER CRUNCHING ║
                          ╚══════════════════╝~n

               ~gOnly  after ~r the invention ~n~g  of transistors
               did  we develop useful  computers.    Bless
               those   nice inventors.   Transistors  have
               two  positions and can perform two   varia-
               bles.    When  you  add  transistors,  your
               computer's  power increases at a GEOMETRIC,
               not  arithmetic,  rate.  This means that  a
               set of 3 transistors can perform 8   varia-
               bles (ie:  2 X 2 X 2) and sets of 4  and  5
               transistors  perform  ~h16~N~g and ~h32~n~g  variables,
               respectively.  Producing 10 variables  with
               transistors is cumbersome  and   expensive.
               ~p~g

               Therefore,   we  have  to  go  around  this
               problem by conversions between the  Decimal
               and Binary numbering systems.    Electronic
               circuits  with ~htransistors~n~g can also perform
               a  few simple calculations.   These  simple
               calculations   (or  data  processing)    is
               performed in the Binary system.    Hardware
               arithmetic   units  have  to  repeat  their
               actions    many   times,    even   for    a
               simple  calculation which can be  performed
               on  paper.     Various  computer   programs
               initiate  and control hardware ~R arithmetic ~N~g
               ~r unit ~N~g  actions.   We all know  what  these
               programs  are doing and we want  to   learn
               more  about  programs.  Now let's  try  the
               exam sessions.

::@1 ~yYes.~n
::\~gYou are not  correct.  In the number ~r 333, ~n~g each of the  three  3  signs
represent   quite different values.  These values are ~h300, 30~n~G and  ~h3~n~g OR
333  =  (3  x 10 x 10) + (3 x 10) + (3 X 1).  We have ten  signs  in  our
Decimal  number system (0, 1, 2,  3, 4,  5,  6,  7, 8, 9).  The  base  of
this  system  equals  the  number  of signs it  contains,  which  is  10.
Therefore, the value of ~r each digit ~N~g is 10 times more than the  value  of
the same digit to its right hand side.
::@::*2 ~yNo.~n
::\::~gYou are correct now.  I'm happy you tried all the optional   answers.
The  base in the Decimal numbering system is ~h10.~N~g  The value of each digit
is 10 times more than the value of the same digit to its right hand side,
e.g.   111  =  (1  x 10 x 10) + (1 x 10) + (1 x 1) = 111 in  the  Decimal
system.   We can represent numbers  in practically any desired base.  For
example,  in an Octal  numbering  system  our base is 8 and we use  signs
(0,  1,   2, 3, 4, 5, 6,  7).  In  a ~r Binary system ~n~g our base is 2 and we
use   only  2 signs  (0,   1).    In  a Hexadecimal system our base is 16
and we  use  16 signs.   (0,  1,  2, 3, 4, 5, 6,  7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E,
F).   For  convenience,  we just assigned A,  B, C, D, E and F to 10, 11,
12, 13, 14 and 15 respectively.
::\~gYou  are correct.   The ~r base ~n~g in the Decimal numbering system is  10.
The  value  of each digit  is 10 times more than the value  of  the  same
digit to its right hand side,  e.g. 111 = (1 x 10 x 10) + (1 x 10) + (1 x
1)  =   111  in  the  Decimal  system.   We  can  represent  numbers   in
practically  any   desired ~hbase.~n~g   For example,  in an  Octal   numbering
system  our base is 8 and  we use  signs (0,  1,  2, 3, 4, 5, 6,  7).  In
a  Binary system our ~r base ~n~g is  2 and we use only 2 signs (0,  1).  In  a
Hexadecimal system our ~hbase~n~g is 16 and  we use 16 signs.  (0,  1, 2, 3, 4,
5,  6,  7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E,  F). For convenience, we just assigned A,
B, C, D, E and F to 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15, respectively.
::#B ~uDo we have to always use Decimal numbering systems? ~n
::@1 ~yYes.~n
::\~gNot at all. In computers, we are using ~hBinary, Octal and Hexadecimal~n~g
numbering  systems.   In computers we convert Decimal numbers  mostly  to
Binary numbers. Computers calculate in ~r Binary ~n~gsystems. The results  are
converted  from Binary to Decimal for our purposes.  Do you know why?  We
have only two variables in our switches in the computers.  Don't worry  -
we take 4 switches for Octal and 5 switches for  Hexadecimal.   Even if we
take 6 switches we can represent 32 signs.   We may do that, too.
::@::*2 ~yNo.~n
::\~gOf  course not.  All calculations in computers are   accomplished   with
Binary  numbers. In ~r Binary ~n~g number representations with base 2, we  need
more  digits  than  are used in the Decimal system.  For  an  example  we
represent the value 15 in the base 10 (the Decimal system) with 15 = (1 x
10)  +  (5  x 1) = 15  with just two digits; 1 and 5 (15).  For the  same
value   (15)  in  the Binary system, we need four digits (1111);  1111  =
(1  x 2 x 2 x 2) + (1 x 2 x 2) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1).  1111 in  the  Binary
system is equal to 15 in the Decimal system.  The lower the base
numbering system used, the more digits  needed. 15 in ~r Octal ~n~g is (1 x 8) + (7 x
1) or 17, and in ~r Hexadecimal ~n~g is F  (15  x 1).
::@3 ~yNone of the above.  ~n
::\~gSorry! In the ~r Decimal ~n~g  system, we  use 10 signs (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,  6,
7,  8, 9) for numbers.   The  locations  of these digits are very
important.   With  one digit we can  represent ten values from 0  to  9.   Any
value  of the second digit is multiplied by  10, any value of  the  third
digit is multiplied by (10 x 10) and  so  on, e.g. 293  = (2 x 10 x 10) +
(9  x 10) + (3 x 1).  The number 11 in Decimal = (1 x 10) + (1 x 1).   In
an   Octal number system, we use 8 signs (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,  7).   The
number 11 in  ~r Octal ~n~g is (1 x 8) + (1 x 1), which is equal to  9  in  our
Decimal  system.  In a Binary system, we use only two signs (0, 1).   The
number  11 in a Binary system  is (1 x 2) + (1 x 1), which is equal to  3
in  the  Decimal  system.  The number 111 in a Binary system is (1 x 2  x
2) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1), which is  equal  to 7 in the Decimal system.  The
same number 111 in  an ~hOctal~n~g system is equal to 73 in the Decimal system.

::#C ~uWhy do we use Binary calculations in computers? ~n
::@1 ~yThey are easier to calculate.~n
::\^^::~gLet's see what we need when we want to calculate with a device? We
need a system inside the device which does the calculation exactly as  we
do. Transistors can add two numbers in a ~r Binary ~n~g system exactly as we do
on paper.  See the following addition problems as examples.
In Decimal ~h 1+  1+  2+~n~g  | same        ~h1+   1+  10+ ~n~g
system      ~h1   2   2~n~g   | addition    ~h1   10   10~n~g
           ~h___ ___ ___ ~N~g | in a       ~h---  ---  ---  ~n~g
            ~h2   3   4~n~g   | Binary     ~h10   11  100~n~g
                        | system
In the first Binary addition both numbers are 1.  Also, we have just  one
digit. The result is (10) which has two digits.  That means if we have
to add 1 + 1, we get a "0" and ~hcarry "1"~N~g to the next higher-valued
digit.  This is similar to 5 + 5 = 10 in the Decimal system.

::@::*2 ~yThey are compatible with the switches in computers. ~n
::\~gPerfect.  The Binary numbering system uses two variables.  The  switches
in computers perform with two values.  The ~HBinary~n~g system and switches are
compatible.  Therefore the physical action of hardware and software codes
hug  each  other  happily at this point.  The position  of  a  number  of
switches represent numbers in a Binary system.  In order to find out if a
number  is  smaller  or equal to another number,  the  positions  of  two
corresponding sets of ~hswitches~n~g are compared. A rather simple electronic
circuit with transistors  can add two single digits in ~r Binary ~n~g  systems.
It   is   called a half adder.  With the help of  programs  and  repeated
half adder  functions, other calculations are performed.
::@3 ~yNone of the above.~n
::\~gSorry,  we got you again.  In computers, ~r simple calculations ~n~g (such  as
comparison  and addition of two numbers) are simulated by  the  positions
of  switches.   If we want to add 3 numbers together, we must first   get
the result  of two of them and then add the third number to this  result.
Or if  we want to multiply a number by 5, we have to add the same  number
5  times.    Or  we move a number one step to the left  and  double   its
value (e.g.  10 = 2; 100 = 4; 1000 = 8).  All calculations must be broken
down  and  prepared for these limited  possibilities.   More  complicated
calculations  must be  analyzed and broken down to simpler  calculations.
That  is why  the schools teach ~hNUMERICAL ANALYSIS.  ~n

::#D ~uAre we entering numbers into the computers ~n
::@1 ~yIn Decimal? ~n
::\~gYou are correct if we consider ~r data entry ~n~g by keyboard as  an  example.
We  type the numbers on keyboard in Decimal and enter them into the
computer.  These Decimal numbers will be converted to Binary numbers  before
calculations. After calculations, the results are converted to Decimal
and transferred to the printer or the ~r screen.  ~n
::@2 ~yIn Binary?~n
::\~gSorry. We are mostly familiar with the ~r Decimal ~n~g numbers. Our
important input device (the keyboard) is prepared for Decimal numbers.  Also,
we wish to see our results on the screen or on paper in  Decimal  form.
Reading and writing Binary numbers is very cumbersome.  Therefore, we
usually enter and receive numbers in ~r Decimal ~n~g form.
::@::*3 ~yNone of the above?~n
::\~gPerfect - your brain works properly.  We may ~r enter data ~n~g in any
numbering system. It depends on devices and files or the bulk of data. We
enter data by keyboard in Decimal.  We can receive data from a disk or by
modem  with various forms of files.  Many of these files have numbers  in
Binary   forms.   For example, compiled files with the  ~r .EXE ~n~g  extension
are full of Binary numbers.
::#E ~uWhich kind of numbering systems are processed in micro computers? ~n
::@1 ~yDecimal and Binary.~n
::\^^::~gThe review of the ~r following table ~n~g shows computer designers are full
of love for Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal numbering systems. Below is a
short sample of a conversion table:


~hDECIMAL  BINARY  OCTAL  HEXADECIMAL  DECIMAL  BINARY  OCTAL  HEXADECIMAL~n~G
   0      0000     0        0           8      1000    10        8
   1      0001     1        1           9      1001    11        9
   2      0010     2        2          10      1010    12        A
   3      0011     3        3          11      1011    13        B
   4      0100     4        4          12      1100    14        C

::@::*2 ~yDecimal, Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal.~n
::\~gLet's  see why we also use ~r Octal and Hexadecimal ~N~g  numbers.   With one
switch  we  can  produce 2 variables.  With a set of 3  switches  we  can
produce  8 variables.  Furthermore, with 4 switches we produce 16
variables.  Two variables of one switch is the smallest amount of information.
This is a unit and called a ~hBIT.~N~g  The 8 variables of 3 switches is
another information unit.  It is called a ~hBYTE.~n~g  Switches can easily  simulate
the  number 2 and all other multiples of 2.  These numbers are 2,  4,  8,
16,  32,  64,  128, 256, 512, 1024 and so on.  Do you  recall  all  these
numbers as part of the specifications in a computer system?  Number 10 is
not listed and one ~hkilobyte~N~g is 1024 bytes (not 1000 ~hbytes).~n~g  Please check
the other answer; we have a nice table for you.

::#::#13A ~uAre "20 + 16" and "A + B - C * 2" expressions or statements? ~n
::#~g~h
        █████████
        ██     ██ ╓──┐ ╓──╖ ┌──╖ ╓──╖ ▀  ▄▄▄▄▄  ┌──╖ ─╫──  ▀  ╓──╖ ╓──╖
        ██     ██ ║    ║  ║ ╓──╢ ║  ║ ║     ▄▀  ╓──╢  ║    ║  ║  ║ ║  ║
        █████████ ║    ╙──╢ ╙──╜ ║  ║ ║  ▄▀     ╙──╜  ╙──┘ ║  ╙──╜ ║  ║
                      ────╜              ▀▀▀▀▀

                              █████████
                              ██     ██  ╓──┐
                              ██     ██ ─╫─
                              █████████  ║


                 ████████
                 ██    ██
                 ████████
                 ██     ╓───┐╓──╖ ╓──╖ ╓───┐┌──╖ ╓─┬─╖ ╓───┐
                 ██     ║    ║  ║ ║  ║ ║    ╓──╢ ║ │ ║ ╙───╖
                 ██     ║    ╙──╜ ╙──╢ ║    ╙──╜ ║   ║ └───╜
                                 ────╜
~p~g~h

                      ╔═══════════════════════════╗
                      ║ ORGANIZATION OF A PROGRAM ║
                      ╚═══════════════════════════╝~n

               ~gWe    already  know how to input  data   in
               the computer  and  how to receive    output
               data  from  the computer.    Computers  are
               just   machines.   The   entered    ~r data, ~n~g
               ~r instructions, expressions  and statements ~n~g
               have   to  follow certain rules and  disci-
               plines.  These rules and disciplines should
               be  compatible with preloaded instructions,
               such  as  Operating  System  and   Language
               Program as well.
~p






               ~gA   program can consist of  several  blocks
               of  ~r sub-programs. ~n~g  Various parts  of  the
               program have  to be declared and  described
               in    more    detail   or   identified   as
               specific types before the program  can   be
               started.    In the following  test  session
               we  will,   for the  most  part,  be  using
               PASCAL language signs.

::@::*1 ~YThey are expressions. ~n
::\~gBravo  - Congratulations.  They  are two  ~r mathematical  expressions. ~N~g
Combinations of variables and operators (+. -, etc.) may be used to build
expressions to perform calculations.  NOTE THAT WHEN WRITING EXPRESSIONS,
ALL OPERATORS (+, - , DIR, 1, AND, ETC.) MUST BE VALID FOR THE ~hTYPE~N~g OF
DATA UPON WHICH THEY OPERATE.
::@2 ~yThey are statements.~n
::\~gNo  -  they  are expressions.  Even a single variable such  as  7.6   or
WEEKDAY  are expressions.  But if you have to use two operators  adjacent
to each other, parentheses must be used. For example, to multiply ~r 2 ~n~g  by
~r -A, ~n~g  you  may not write 2 * -A as this would be  confusing.  Instead,
you have to write ~H2 * (-A) ~n
::@3 ~yNone of the above.  ~n
::\~gI'm  sorry - expressions and statements are building part of a   program
block.  ~HAn expression~n~g consists of a sequence of terms separated by
operators. Please note the following list of ~r operators: ~n~g =, +, -, *, DIV,  /,
MOD,   =,  <  >, <,< =, LN, AND, NOT and OR.
::#B ~uYou spent two dollars to buy tomatoes for $0.35 cents a pound.
 With which of the following expressions can you calculate the exact
 amount (in pounds) of tomatoes you purchased? ~N
::@::*1 ~y2/0.35.~n
::\~gYou are correct again.  Congratulations!  ~r "DIV" ~n~g is the division
operator  for integral variables, while "/" is the correct  division  operator
for our examples.  Recall that the basic rule in an arithmetic expression
is  that all types of variables used must be consistent.  As an  example,
if  A  is  an  integral  variable,  the  expression  A  +  .03  is  wrong
because  .03 is a real number. But if B is a ~r real variable, ~n~g the
expression B + .03 is correct.
::@2 ~y2 DIV 0.35.~n
::\~gSorry. All mathematical ~r operators (such as +, -, *) ~n~g could  be  applied
for  real and integral numbers except DIV and MOD which are only  applied
for integral  variables.  Additionally, in any expression, all  variables
must have the same type (i.e. ~hintegers and real numbers). ~n
::#C ~uIn this expression "A:= 5 + 3 * g", which operator has the highest
 priority? ~n
::@1 ~yThe addition (+) operator?  ~n
::\~gNo  cigar this time.   Each operator has a ~r precedence ~n~g level. When two
operators  are  adjacent,  the one with the higher priority is   executed
first.  ~hThe priority~n~g level of * is higher than the priority level of "+".
Therefore,   A:= 5+ 3 * 9 = 5 + 27 = 32.  Otherwise, by executing the  (+)
operator first, the wrong answer will be A:= 5 + 3 * 9 = 8 * 9 = 72.
::@::*2 ~yThe multiplication (*) operator? ~n
::\~gYou    are  sharp  today!  Operators  are  executed  according to  their
priority  level.   The following list shows the  various   operators  and
their priority levels: The relational operators ( =, <, >, <=,  >=, <>  )
have  the ~hlowest~n~g precedence. Next come   +, -, and OR.  Then  *, /,  DIV,
MOD,  and AND.  A ~hhigher~n~G priority is  NOT.  The ~hhighest~n~g priority  of  all
are parentheses.
::@3 ~yAny of the above? ~n
::\~gOnce again, please note: If the computer operates arbitrarily,
we will get a  ~r different result ~n~g from  the   same  expression
i.e.:  A:= 5 + 3 * 9 = 5 + 27 = 32 when multiplication is operated  first.
A:= 5 + 3 * 9 = 8 ::* 9 = 72  when addition is operated first.
~r The  rules ~N~g of priority for operators are necessary.  They  have  to  be
considered  precisely,  otherwise  your  program  will  give  you  wrong,
confusing results.  Please try again.
::#D ~UCan functions also be used in expressions?~n
::@::*1 ~yYes.  ~n
::\~gYes, of course, standard ~r functions ~n~g such as ABS, ARCTAN, CHR, COS, EOF,
EOLN,  EXP, ODD, ORD, and TRUNC are used in expressions.  A  function  is
used by writing the name of the function followed by an argument enclosed
in parentheses. For example, the ~halgebraic expression~N~g AX2 + BX + C may be
expressed as:  A * SQR(X)+B * X+C.
::@2 ~yNo.~N
::\~gSorry, you missed the fact that standard ~r functions ~N~g could  be  used  in
expressions.   Also, the argument's type must be valid for the  function.
For   example,   in this expression ROUND (12.35),  the  ROUND   function
required   a  real  argument (12.35) and the result will  be  an  integer
(12).   Please  check  these conditions again under  STANDARD ~hFUNCTIONS~N~g
in  the Glossary.
::#E ~uDo the logical operators AND, OR, and NOT in expressions result in a
 real value or in an integral value? ~n
::@1 ~yReal value?  ~n
::\~gNo  -  The three logical operators ~r AND, OR and NOT ~N~g operate only on
Boolean  values  (True  or False).  Even if  a  rational  operator  (e.g.
<,>...)  is used to compare any two real variables, the result will be  a
Boolean value ~r True or False. ~n~g
Also,  as  you will notice in the following example,  all  subexpressions
must   be enclosed in parentheses unless they start with a NOT:  (N=B) OR
(C=F)  AND (A-B=0)
::@2 ~yInteger value?  ~N
::\^^::~gExcuse me, that was a tricky question.  The results of all Boolean
expressions will be the Boolean results of either ~hTRUE or FALSE.~n~g Look at
the following examples and their equivalent truth tables:
~r    AND Logic                OR Logic                 NOT Logic  ~N~g

~hM    N    M  and  N       M    N    M  or  N         M    NOT M  ~n~g

F    F       F            F    F       F             F      T
F    T       F            F    T       T             T      F
T    F       F            T    F       T
T    T       T            T    T       T

::@::*3 ~yBoolean value?   ~n
::\^^::~gGood job. Congratulations.  The results of all logical ~r Boolean ~n~g
expressions will be either ~r True or False. ~n~g  Also, you may wish to keep
in mind the following useful rules, which may simplify Boolean expressions:

                     ~hNOT (NOT A)~n~g is equivalent to ~hA~n~g
           ~hNOT (A OR B)~N~g is equivalent to  ~h(NOT A) and (NOT B)
          NOT (A AND B)~N~g is the equivalent to ~h(NOT A) or (NOT B)
                  NOT   (A<B)~N~g  is  equivalent  to  ~hA>=B
                 NOT  (A<>B)~n~g  is  the equivalent to ~hA=B~n~G

::#F ~uIn the following program, is WRITELN a statement or an expression?
 PROGRAM  START  (OUTPUT);
 BEGIN
 WRITELN ('My lucky start')
 END                     ~n
::@::*1 ~yWRITELN is a statement?  ~n
::\~gYou  are correct. ~r WRITELN ~n~g is an output statement.  Statements instruct
machines  for various actions (after they are  translated or compiled  to
machine   language  codes).   Each  program  body  has   one   or    more
statement(s),  which are called compound statements.  A  compound
statement must be bracketted by BEGIN and~h END. ~n
::@2 ~yWRITELN is an expression?  ~n
::\^^::~gNo, remember that an expression is a sequence of constants or variables
separated by operators. WRITELN or WRITE are ~r output statements. ~N~g

                   WRITELN   (    )   or  WRITE  (   )

will print the string found inside  the parentheses to the screen (unless
your program calls for the string to be outputted to the printer).
Also,  we  have  ~hinput~n~g statements READL and ~r READ, ~n~g  which will read (or,
INPUT) the string found inside the parentheses.

::#G ~uIs := an equal sign or an assignment operator in the following
 program line? SUM:= A + B; ~n
::@1 ~yAn equal sign.~n
::\^^::~gThe program line SUM:= A+B; is an ~Hassignment statement~n~g and probably the
most   important kind of statement in Pascal.  This statement consists
of a variable identifier (SUM), followed by the symbol ~r := ~n~g and then
followed by a  valid expression (A+B).

          The symbol ~r := ~n~g is  called  the assignment operator.
::@::*2 ~yAn assignment statement.  ~N
::\^^::~gThe program line SUM:= A+B; is an ~r assignment ~n~g statement and is probably
the most  important kind of statement in Pascal. This statement consists
of a variable identifier (SUM), followed by the symbol ~r := ~n~g and then
followed by a  valid expression (A+B).

           The symbol ~r := ~n~g is called the  assignment operator.
::@3 ~yNeither of the above.~n
::\^^::~gThe program line SUM:= A+B; is an assignment statement and is probably
the most important kind of statement in Pascal. This statement consists
of a variable identifier (SUM), followed by the symbol ~r := ~n~g and then
followed by a valid expression (A+B).

          The  symbol ~r := ~n~G  is called the assignment  operator.




::#::#14A~u What is the FIRST TUTOR? ~n
::#~g~h

                    █████████
                    ██     ██ ╓───┐ ▀ ╓───╖ ▀  ╓───╖ ┌───╖ ║
                    ██     ██ ║     ║ ║   ║ ║  ║   ║ ╓───╢ ║
                    █████████ ╨     ╨ ╙───╢ ╨  ╨   ╨ ╙───╜ ╙─
                                      ────╜
                                        ████████
                                ║       ██
                ┌───╖ ╓───╖ ╓───╢       ████  ╓───┐ ╓───╖ ╓───╖
                ╓───╢ ║   ║ ║   ║       ██    ║     ╟───╜ ╟───╜
                ╙───╜ ╨   ╨ ╙───╜       ██    ╨     ╙───┘ ╙───┘

                 █████████
                     ██          ║                         ║
                     ██  ╥    ╥ ─╫── ╓────╖ ╓───┐ ▀  ┌───╖ ║  ╓───┐
                     ██  ║    ║  ║   ║    ║ ║     ║  ╓───╢ ║  ╙───╖
                     ██  ╙────╜  ╙── ╙────╜ ╨     ╨  ╙───╜ ╙─ └───╜


~p~g~h



                 ╔════════════════════════════════════╗
                 ║ INTRODUCTION TO THE FREE TUTORIALS ║
                 ╚════════════════════════════════════╝~n~g

               We at Software Academy, Inc., have  various
               FREE  tutorials.   These  are;  the   First
               Tutor,  the  Multi-Tutor,  the   Customized
               Tutorial,  the Running Demo and the  Single
               Demo(s).    These  software  packages   are
               provided  to  allow  you  to  become   more
               familiar with the full line of PROFESSOR 3T
               tutorials.~p~g



               Please  go through these packages and their
               associated lessons to review the advantages
               and  applications  of these  FREE  software
               programs.   Please let us know if you  need
               more  information  or in which way  we  may
               serve you better.  Please feel free to make
               copies  of  the FREE TUTORIALS to  give  to
               your friends, co-workers and customers.

               You are encouraged to order those tutorials
               you  determine will be of help to  yourself
               or  to  those whom  you  know  (co-workers,
               customers,  etc.).  Thank you all for  your
               help, interest and encouragement.~p~g~h


                     ╔════════════════════════════╗
                     ║ THE PROFESSOR 3T TUTORIALS ║
                     ║    WHY ARE THEY UNIQUE     ║
                     ╚════════════════════════════╝~n~g

               We  have,  for years,  been introducing new
               ideas and features into the concept, design
               and  implementation  of  our  PROFESSOR  3T
               tutorials.   However,  we are still  amazed
               that  the  packaging  of  tutorials  (i.e.:
               sound,  graphics) seems to take  precedence
               over  content  (real learning)  in  today's
               marketplace.   We  have decided to  discuss
               this question with you in this lesson.~p~g

               Our  PROFESSOR  3T  tutorials  simulate  an
               entire school in their concept,  design and
               content.   The lecture part of each  lesson
               is   only  a  fraction  of  what  the  test
               session  is.    We  have  not  crowded  our
               tutorials  with graphics and sound  because
               we  try  to teach both basic  and  advanced
               knowledge of computer literacy, programming
               languages,  software applications  packages
               or topics selected by others.

               With many years of having a computer school
               with  many students,  we have developed the
               PROFESSOR  3T line of tutorials around  the
               most efficient method of learning - the TWO
               WAY form of communication.  Let's go to the
               test session now and see how this  actually
               works.

::@1~yA demo package.
::\~gNot  at  all.   The  FIRST TUTOR  is  a  complete  computer  literacy
tutorial.   It  introduces  and  teaches the  main  aspects  of  computer
hardware  and  software to novices and is a useful  refresher  course  to
those  of you already familiar with computers.  The FIRST TUTOR  prepares
you  for  both  programming language tutorials as well  as  for  software
applications tutorials.  The FIRST TUTOR also teaches you how  efficient,
yet  friendly,  learning by computer can be, due to the TWO WAY  form  of
communication learning which is standard in all PROFESSOR 3T tutorials.

::@::*2~yA complete tutorial.

::\~gGreat!   The FIRST TUTOR is a complete computer literacy tutorial.  It
introduces and teaches the main aspects of computer hardware and software
to  novices  and  is a useful refresher course to those  of  you  already
familiar  with  computers.    The  FIRST  TUTOR  prepares  you  for  both
programming  language  tutorials  as well as  for  software  applications
tutorials.  The FIRST TUTOR also teaches you how efficient, yet friendly,
learning  by  computer can be,  due to the TWO WAY form of  communication
learning which is standard in all PROFESSOR 3T tutorials.
This FIRST TUTOR is a sharware package, priced at $69 (U.S.) and will  be
included in all of our other tutorials;  Excel, Windows, Dbase III  Plus,
WordPerfect,  Lotus  1 2 3, Basic, Assembly, C,  Cobol,  Pascal,  PC/DOS,
MS/DOS and Customized.

::#B~u What is the MULTI-TUTOR? ~n
::@1~yA tutorial made for review purposes only.
::\~gYou're  partially correct.   The Professor 3T line of tutorials  cover
all  the major programming languages and software applications  packages.
Reviewing all these packages can take a considerable amount of  time,  so
we developed the MULTI-TUTOR.   This package incorporates one lesson from
each of our tutorials,  as well as each lesson's associated
question-and-answer  session.  Also included is a complete listing of all
the  lessons contained  in  each tutorial, along with  its  respective
glossary(ies).  Since  all  of  our  fine tutorials have the  same  concept,
 design  and quality, the MULTI-TUTOR is an ideal package from which
to review all  of Software   Academy's   tutorials  (Excel,  Windows,
Dbase   III   Plus, WordPerfect,  Lotus  1 2 3, Basic, Assembly, C,  Cobol,
Pascal,  PC/DOS, MS/DOS and Customized).

::@2~yA tutorial to represent our other tutorials.
::\~gThis  is  a  correct, but not best, answer.  The  MULTI-TUTOR  has  a
complete  lesson, question-and-answer session, lessons and  glossary(ies)
listings  from  each  of our tutorials.  Since the  concept,  design  and
quality of all our tutorials are manifested in the MULTI-TUTOR, it is  an
ideal  package  for  reviewing the full line  of  our  tutorials  (Excel,
Windows,  Dbase III Plus, WordPerfect, Lotus 1 2 3, Basic,  Assembly,  C,
Cobol, Pascal, PC/DOS, MS/DOS and Customized).  Another plus is that  you
may  freely  copy and distribute the MULTI-TUTOR.  Now, there's  more  to
this answer - try again.

::@::*3~yAll of the above.

::\~gExcellent  choice!   The  concept,  design  and  quality  of  all  our
tutorials  (Excel,  Windows, Dbase III Plus, WordPerfect, Lotus  1  2  3,
Basic, Assembly, C, Cobol, Pascal, PC/DOS, MS/DOS and Customized) is  the
same  and  is evident once you've gone through  the  MULTI-TUTOR.   Also,
because the MULTI-TUTOR has lessons, question-and-answer sessions, lesson
and glossary(ies) listings from all our tutorials, it makes reviewing all
of  Software Academy's easy and concise.  In addition, you may  copy  and
give the MULTI-TUTOR to your co-workers, friends and customers.

::#C~u What is a CUSTOMIZED TUTORIAL? ~n
::@1~yA demo package.
::\~gSorry, but the CUSTOMIZED TUTORIAL is a complete package.  Try again.

::@::*2~yA complete package.

::\~gYes!   The  CUSTOMIZED  TUTORIAL provides complete information on  the
NEED  FOR,  the  APPLICATION  OF  and PRODUCTION OF  a  tutorial  on  the
subject(s)  you  wish to teach.   We can produce  a  complete  customized
tutorial  for your educational needs and objectives.   If you think  you,
your  business  or organization will need a customized tutorial for  some
specific  subject,  and such a tutorial is not currently  available,  you
should get and go through our FREE CUSTOMIZED TUTORIAL package.

::#D~u What is a RUNNING DEMO? ~n
::@1~yAnother tutorial.
::\~gNot at all.   The RUNNING DEMO is just that;   a demonstration program
that  runs  automatically  and  shows all the  various  features  of  the
PROFESSOR  3T tutorials.   This RUNNING DEMO is useful in  the  following
way:   you may set it up to run on any of your computers and then let
co-workers or customers go through it at their leisure, thus freeing up your
time for other efforts.

::@::*2~yA  software  package  that automatically  demonstrates  PROFESSOR  3T
features.

::\~gRight again!   The RUNNING DEMO is just that;  a demonstration program
that  runs  automatically  and  shows all the  various  features  of  the
PROFESSOR  3T  tutorials.   This RUNNING DEMO is useful in the  following
way:   you may set it up to run on any of your computers and then let
co-workers or customers go through it at their leisure, thus freeing up your
time for other efforts.

::#E~u What is a SINGLE DEMO? ~n
::@::*1~yA demo.
::\~gCorrect!  We make our SINGLE DEMOS with one or two lessons from their
respective   complete   packages  (Excel,  Windows,   Dbase   III   Plus,
WordPerfect,  Lotus  1 2 3, Basic, Assembly, C,  Cobol,  Pascal,  PC/DOS,
MS/DOS  and  Customized) in order to demonstrate  the  contents,  design,
concept  and quality of the full packages.  This is an excellent  way  to
review,  in  more  depth than provided in  the  MULTI-TUTOR,  a  complete
tutorial  which may be of interest to you.  In addition, the SINGLE  DEMO
of  any of our tutorials has a menu and glossary(ies) of that  particular
tutorial, which the MULTI-TUTOR doesn't have.

::@2~yAnother tutor.

::\~gNo,  sorry.  The SINGLE DEMO is just that: a demonstration  tutorial.
We  make our SINGLE DEMOS with one or two lessons from  their  respective
complete packages (Excel, Windows, Dbase III Plus, WordPerfect, Assembly,
Basic,  Lotus  1 2 3, C, Cobol, Pascal, PC/DOS,  MS/DOS  and  Customized)
order  to  demonstrate the contents, design, concept and quality  of  the
full  packages.  This is an excellent way to review, in more  depth  than
provided in the MULTI-TUTOR, a complete tutorial which may be of interest
to you.  In addition, the SINGLE DEMO of any of our tutorials has a  menu
and  glossary(ies)  of that particular tutorial,  which  the  MULTI-TUTOR
doesn't have.  Please try the other answer.

::#F~u Does PROFESSOR 3T believe one or two screens of lecture can lead to a
 dozen or more questions from the learner? ~n
::@1~yNo.
::\~gSorry,  but  the  fact  is the PROFESSOR  3T  lectures  are  not  real
simulations of the school environment.  From our experience, we know that
a  student's  learning efficieny is highest during  exam  sessions.   The
Socratic,  TWO WAY, form of teaching (questions followed by  answers)  is
infinitely better than a simple, ONE WAY form of communication (such as a
lecture).   Schools  in  today's world simply don't  have  the  time  and
resources  to employ the TWO WAY form of learning so they are  forced  to
adopt long and multiple lectures as the majority of their curricula.  Try
again.

::@2~yYes.
::\~gYou're  getting closer.   The PROFESSOR 3T lecture sessions  are  very
short  introductions to a particular topic.   It is the test sessions  of
our tutorials in which the vast majority of learning occurs.   We do this
by  starting  the  test sessions with simple  questions  having  multiple
answers.  We then use the knowledge gained from these answer responses to
build the groundwork for more involved questions on the topic.   In  this
way,  the  learners  are actually learning MORE when they think they  are
simply being tested!  Try again for a better answer.

::@::*3~yMore than the above.

::\~gThis is the best choice.  We hope you already checked the other answer
responses here.   By now,  you should know that the vast majority of your
learning actually occurs in a question-and-answer setting.  Why does this
happen?   Remember  your  own school days?   After each  exam,  you  were
anxious  to know if your responses were correct.   You talked  to  fellow
students  or your teacher,  or you consulted books or notes to  determine
how  well you did.   You were concentrating on the subject and in a  GOOD
LEARNING  mode  and  this  is what we  imported  into  our  PROFESSOR  3T
tutorials!   Are you surprised what anxiety and reward can do to your own
learning curve?

::#G~u Do graphics or color enhance learning through tutorials? ~n
::@1~yYes.
::\~gOnly  somewhat  correct.   Graphics  and music are exciting  and  could
possibly  enhance learning.   They should even be considered as  integral
parts  of any tutorial.   However,  some tutorials are  overwhelmed  with
these  features  and short-change the student's learning by  skimping  on
INFORMATION and TEACHING.  Sure, PROFESSOR 3T believes you shouldn't have
a grey, colorless, tutorial but he also believes your highest priority is
TO LEARN quickly and efficiently.  Pick another response, learn more!

::@2~yThey are important features in the learning process.
::\~gGraphics  and music are exciting and could possibly enhance  learning.
They  should  even  be  considered as integral  parts  of  any  tutorial.
However,  some  tutorials are overwhelmed with these features and
short-change  the  student's learning by skimping on INFORMATION and  TEACHING.
Sure,  PROFESSOR  3T  believes  you shouldn't  have  a  grey,  colorless,
tutorial  but he also believes your highest priority is TO LEARN  quickly
and efficiently.  C'mon, you can do better than this!

::@::*3~yAll of the above.

::\~gYes!   The  most important goal of tutorials should be the benefit  of
learners and this is accomplished by making available a  fast,  efficient
and comprehensive learning process.   Graphics and music are exciting and
could  possibly  enhance  learning.   They should even be  considered  as
integral parts of any tutorial.   However, some tutorials are overwhelmed
with  these features and short-change the student's learning by  skimping
on INFORMATION and TEACHING.   Sure,  PROFESSOR 3T believes you shouldn't
have  a  grey,  colorless,  tutorial but he also  believes  your  highest
priority is TO LEARN quickly and efficiently.  Good going!

::#H~u Is the PROFESSOR 3T tutorial concept and design perfect? ~n
::@::*1~yNo.
::\~gA  perfect  answer!   We'd like to say our products are the  ultimate,
finished software products, but we'd like to remind you of the following;
our  writers,  designers,  programmers  and learners are in a  continuous
learning  process and their goal is bring BETTER QUALITY  to  you.   They
expect and appreciate feedback, recommendations and suggestions from you.
::@2~yYes, for the time being.

::\~gNo,  we  cannot agree with you,  no matter how much we would like  to.
Believe it or not,  we think you,  the learner, should have available the
best  learning  tools  and  we strive to bring you  the  best  through  a
continuous process of improving our tutorials.
     We'd  like to say our tutorials are the ultimate,  finished software
products,  but  we'd like to remind you of the following;   our  writers,
designers,  programmers and learners are in a continuous learning process
and  their  goal  is  bring BETTER  QUALITY  to  you.   They  expect  and
appreciate feedback, recommendations and suggestions from you.

::#::@::#